I'f!fk 


REINHAI>DTS 


A 

OF  MECHANICAL 
OF  M 


A  PRACTICAL  GUIDE 

TO  NEAT,  CODUECT  AND 

LEGIBLE  DRAWING. 


I 


LIBRARY 

OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 
Class 


THE  TECHNIC 
OF  MECHANICAL  DRAFTING 


A   PRACTICAL   GUIDE 
TO   NEAT,  CORRECT   AND   LEGIBLE   DRAWING 


BY   CHARLES   W.    REINHARDT 

CHIEF  DRAFTSMAN  ENGINEERING  NEWS 


SECOND    EDITION 


n,? ,  . 

u    Or          / 


NEW  YORK: 

THE  ENGINEERING  NEWS  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

1904. 


Copyright,  1900, 
CHAS.   W. 


Copyright.  1904, 
CHAS.   W.   REINHARUT 


PR  E  FACE. 

IN  the  following  pages  the  writer  has  endeavored  to  give  to  the  busy  draftsman  a  thoroughly  practical, 
common-sense  guide  to  good  mechanical  drafting.  No  attention  whatever  has  been  paid  to  the  mathematics 
involved. 

Many  draftsmen,  after  having  carefully  laid  out  their  drawings,  commit  the  error  of  slighting  them  in 
the  execution  ;  sometimes  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  them  all  but  illegible  to  the  men  in  the  shops.  The 
constructing  engineer  frequently  finds  himself  handicapped  in  a  similar  manner.  After  wrestling  with  the 
meaning  of  portion  of  a  drawing,  he  finds  that  other  sections  or  elevations  do  not  correspond  with  the  part 
first  consulted.  He  has  to  make  his  own  deductions,  and  in  reading  between  the  lines,  as  it  were,  perhaps  fin- 
ally arrives  at  some  sort  of  conclusion  regarding  the  correct  shape  of  the  parts  outlined,  or,  as  a  last  resort, 
goes  in  search  of  the  draftsman.  Such  inconsistencies,  if  they  may  be  termed  so,  unnecessarily  increase 
mental  labor  in  reading  and  interpreting  a  design,  and  it  will  be  the  special  province  of  this  book  to  try  to 
eradicate  them. 

While  deprecating  any  needlessly  elaborate  finish,  the  writer  advises  the  use  of  just  sufficient  shading 
and  finishing  touches  to  render  a  drawing  thoroughly  comprehensible,  and  to  preclude  any  possible  ambiguity. 

The  illustrations  in  this  work,  quite  a  number  of  which  have  appeared  in  the  columns  of  "  Engineering 
News,"  are  inserted  to  demonstrate  the  points  involved,  and  have  been  reduced  more  or  less  in  size  so  as  to 
*ave  space.  They  may,  however,  be  copied  by  enlarging  to.  about  three  or  four  times  their  linear  dimensions. 

It  is  of  course  to  be  understood,  that  this  book  is  not  a  manual  for  beginners  exactly  ;  it  serves  its  pur- 
pose best,  where  used  by  the  draftsman  who  is  familiar  with  the  mathematical  principles  of  mechanical  draft- 
ing. It  will  then,  as  the  writer  hopes,  prove  a  valuable  aid  to  the  rapid  production  of  neat,  correct  and  legible 
drawings. 

NEW  YOKK,  December,  1899. 

CHAS.  W.  REINHARDT. 


1 281 4k> 


PREFACE   TO   SECOND   EDITION. 

THE  supplementary  matter  added  to  the  present  edition  thoroughly  brings  this  work  up  to-date.  The 
new  chapter  on  "  Lettering"  will  prove  a  welcome  addition,  as  also  the  matter  on  "  Topographical  Drafting." 
The  latter  gives  a  complete  outline  for  that  study  and  the  tabulated  topographical  conventions  together  with 
the  corrected  standards  of  section-lining,  will  be  found  useful  by  the  draftsman,  who  is  willing  to  improve 
himself. 

July,  1904.  C.  W.  R. 


SYNOPSIS   OF   CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Instructions. 


Preliminaries;   Ink 

Handling  and  Sharpening  of  Pen. . 
Paper  ;  Tracing  Cloth  ;  Erasures . 
Arrangement  of  Views 


Page. 

..       7 

..       8 

..       8 

9 


CHAPTER  II. 
Outlining. 


Full  and  l.roken  Lines 

Modifications 

Order  of  Procedure 


CHAPTER  III. 

Lettering. 

Principles  of   Construction 

Pens.  Arrangement 

Extended  and  Condensed  Style 

Lettering  on  Curves;  Abbreviations. 
Borders,  Titles 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Outline  Shading. 


Principles 

Relative  Strength  of  Lines.. 


9 

10 
12 


12 
13 
14 
14 
15 


15 
16 


Page. 

Mode  of  Procedure 16 

Straight  Line  Shading 17 

Circle  and  Curve  Shading 18 

CHAPTER  V. 

Section  Lining. 

Definitions;   Current  Style  20 

Black  Sections 22 

Method  of  Execution 22 

Description  of  Standards 24 

Modification:  Reinforced  Concrete..    26 

Section-Lining  for  Electrical  Drafting 28 

CHAPTER  VI. 

4 

Curved  Surface  Shading. 

Theory,   Procedure 29 

Cylinder  and  Cone  Shading 29 

Shading  of  Elbow 30 

Shading  of  One  Side  Only 31 

Shading  of  Piles 32 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Shading  of  Inclined  Surfaces. 

Light  and  Dark  Sides  Contrasted 32 

Connection  with  Curved  Surfaces. 32 

Freehand  Shading 33 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Topographical  Drawing. 

Page. 

Shaded  Outlines 34 

Features;  Order  of  Procedure 35 

Water  Shading  ;  Coast  Hatching 35 

Contours 36 

Special  Distinctions 37 

Mountain  Work  ...                      37 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Character  and  Finish. 

Sketchy  Touches  of  Stono  and  Wood 39 

Characteristic  Breaks 40 

Shading  of  Rivets  and  Bolts 41 

Shading  of  Screw-Threads 41 

Treatment  of  Architectural  Drawing 42 


PLATES. 

Standards  for  Section-Lining I.  to  IV. 

Standards  Applied V. 

Curved  and  Inclined  Surfaces VI.  to  VII. 

Topographical  Drawing VIII. 

Character  and  Finish...  ...IX.  to  XI. 


CHAPTER   I.     GENERAL   INSTRUCTIONS. 


rTlIIE  drawing  of  any  object  upon  either  drawing  paper,  tracing 
J-  linen  or  paper  requires  clean-cut,  sharp  outlines.  It  is  a  mis- 
take to  suppose  that  very  thin  outlines  give  an  especially  neat 
appearance  to  any  drawing.  Main  outlines  should  always  be 
drawn  with  the  nibs  of  the  ruling  pen  slightly  separated,  which 
"  setting "  will  give  a  fixed  width  of  line  and  allow  an  uninter- 
rupted flow  of  ink.  When  refilling  the  pen,  care  should  be  taken 
to  readjust  it  to  the  proper  strength  of  line.  To  those  unaccus- 
tomed to  this  somewhat  delicate  task,  the  use  of  a  "lever"  pen, 
which  can  be  obtained  from  almost  every  instrument  dealer,  is 
recommended.  This  pen,  as  shown  by  Fig.  1,  opens  with  a  lever, 
and  will,  after  refilling,  yield 
the  same  strength  of  line  as 
before.  In  regard  to  the  ink 
to  be  used,  the  author  would  Fig-  1  • 

recommend  nothing  but  the  "waterproof"  kind,  a  somewhat  refrac- 
tory medium  to  the  uninitiated;  but  this  ink  will  not  smudge  or  rub 
off  while  being  handled,  a  quality  which  the  ordinary  inks  do  not 
possess. .  After  refilling,  the  pen  should  be  tried  a  couple  of  times 
along  the  grain  of  a  clean  portion  of  the  drawing  board,  or  across 


the  fingers  of  the  left  hand — a  perhaps  objectionable  but  always 
effective  expedient— to  insure  a  "starting"  of  the  flow  of  ink. 
The  actual  work  with  the  pen,  owing  to  the  rapid  drying  of  the 
waterproof  quality,  must  of  course  be  commenced  immediately 
afterwards. 

A  ruling  pen  with  long,  straight  nibs  will  be  the  most  satisfactory 
instrument  for  working  with  waterproof  ink.  The  draftsman  choos- 
ing a  pen  should  open  the  same  lightly  and  look  through  between 
the  nibs  against  the  light.  The  two  outer  curves,  "a"  and  "b" 
(Fig.  2),  should  in  a  good  pen  be  very  flat,  coming  down 
to  a  long  and  very  thin  point,  as  illustration  shows,  and 
not  appear  as  at  "c"  and  "d."  The  ink  should  never 
be  allowed  to  run  out  of  the  slot  and  gather  on  the  out- 
side of  the  two  points,  as  will  happen  when  the  pen  is 
screwed  up  so  tight  that  the  points  touch,  a  pernicious 
practice  indulged  in  by  some  draftsmen  in  the  belief 
that  the  very  finest  lines  can  only  thus  be  obtained.  In 
reality  the  points  of  the  pen  cut  into  the  surface  of  the  paper  and 
deposit  the  particles  of  ink  rubbed  off  from  the  outside  of  the 
points,  yielding  thereby  a  faint,  grayish,  ragged  line,  which  will  not 


Fig.  2. 


reproduce  well  either  by  blue-printing  or  photography.  A  very 
good,  black  and  clean-cut  thin  line  can  be  obtained  by  leaving  the 
nibs  just  a  trifle  apart,  which  procedure  will  cause  a  free  deposit  of 
liquid  ink'  that  will  invariably  reproduce  by  either  of  the  pro- 
cesses mentioned.  The  width  of  the  opening  cannot  be  given 
definitely  ;  it  should  vary  according  to  the  style  of  drawing  and  the 
individual  inclination  of  the  draftsman.  The  instrument  should  be 
kept  bright  and  clean  and  never  be  cillowed  to  accumulate  a  coat- 
ing of  dry  ink  at  the  points.  Wipe,  or  if  necessary  scrape  off. 
All-around  cleanliness  forms  one  of  the  principal  requisites  for  the 
successful  draftsman. 

A  worn-down  ruling  pen  can  be  put  into  proper  trim  again  by 
the  draftsman  himself  through  the  exercise  of  a  little  patience  and 
care.  The  pen,  which  always  wears  off,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  is  ap- 
plied to  the  oilstone,  which  every  draftsman  should  pos- 
sess, and  the  points  ground  off  uniformly  to  the  original 
rounded  outline  and  of  course  dulled,  as  shown,  by  pass- 
ing the  pen  over  the  stone,  as  if  to  draw  lines  upon  it, 
first  inclined,  then  gradually  rising  to  the  upright  posi- 
tion. By  judicious  grinding  of  the  outer  sides  of  the  two 
points  the  requisite  thinness  and  knife-edge  is  finally 
restored.  A  pen  may  in  this  manner  be  kept  in  good 
repair  a  considerable  length  of  time,  until  it  is  finally 
ground  down  so  far  that  the  thinning  of  the  points  would  require 
too  much  time  to  be  a  paying  operation  any  longer. 

The  paper  to  be  used  may  either  possess  a  fine-grained  or  coarse 
(egg-shell)  surface  ;  special  recommendations  in  that  respect  would 
be  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work ;  tracing  paper  or  tracing  cloth 
can  be  obtained  in  excellent  quality  from  almost  any  dealer.  As 
regards  the  most  suitable  side  of  the  latter  material  to  work  up- 


Fig.  3. 


Sectional  Plan  A-B. 


on,  the  writer  would  ad- 
vise the  use  of  the  smooth 
or  inner  side  for  various 
reasons,  one  of  which  is  that 
on  the  back  or  unglazed 
side  the  lines  will  invariably 
become  ragged  or  broken, 
as  there  is  no  continuous 
surface  for  the  ruling  pen 
to  glide  over.  Erasures, 
furthermore,  are  almost  im- 
possible upon  that  side. 
The  inner  or  smooth  side 
presents  a  glass-like  surface, 
which  at  first  may  not  read- 
ily take  the  ink;  a  little  brisk 
rubbing  with  powdered  pum- 
ice, will  somewhat  deaden 
this  gloss  and  admirably  pre- 
pare the  surface  for  the  ink. 
Some  tracing  cloths  abound 
iu  ''leaky"  spots,  the  ink 
soaking  through  at  those 
places,  especially  where 
heavy  lines  are  used.  Such 
blots  can  be  erased  with  a 
sharp  penknife  on  the  re- 
verse side  after  the  draw- 
ing is  finished.  Ordinary 
erasures  on  paper  are  usually 


made  with  the  same  medium,  after  which  a  good  artist's  rubber 
may  be  applied.  Erasures  of  large  sections  of  ink  lines  or  blotches 
on  tracing  cloth  can  be  splendidly  effected  by  using  pumice  powder 
sprinkled  over  the  parts  to  be  erased;  brisk  rubbing  with  the  tip 
of  the  finger,  or  perhaps  a  "  circular  eraser,"  while  gradually  replac- 
ing the  discolored  powder  by  fresh  pumice  will  quickly  clean  the 
part  in  such  a  manner  that  it  can  be  lettered  or  drawn  upon  with- 
out the  least  inconvenience  ;  the  cloth  has  retained  its  surface  and 
will  not  blot  after  this  treatment.  Smaller  areas,  as,  for  instance,  a 
short  portion  of  a  single  line  close  to  another,  can  be  treated  in  a 


similar  manner  through  a  slit  of  proper  size  cut  into  a  piece  of  trac- 
ing cloth  placed  on  top,  which  covers  and  protects  the  adjacent  parts. 
In  arranging  the  different  parts  of  a  drawing  on  a  sheet,  follow 
the  ordinary  common  sense  rule.  Place  elevation  and  plan  in 
vertical  projection  ;  if  a  top  plan,  place  above ;  if  a  bottom  plan, 
below  the  elevation.  If  an  end  elevation  of  the  right  hand  end  of 
the  object  is  to  be  shown,  project  it  from  that  end  of  the  side  ele- 
vation, etc.  Enlarged  details  of  some  parts  can,  where  properly 
captioned,  be  placed  as  "  fillers  "  almost  anywhere.  The  foregoing 
is  to  a  certain  extent  illustrated  by  Fig.  4. 


CHAPTER  II.     OUTLINING. 


visible  lines  which  define  the  edges  of  any  object  repre- 
-L  sented  should,  after  having  been  carefully  penciled  in,  inva- 
riably be  drawn  full.  For  construction,  "invisible"  or  projection 
lines,  where  such  are  desired  to  be  shown,  dashes  about  -^  inch 
long  with  spaces  of  -jL-  inch  between  should  be  used.  Two  or  more 
parallel  lines  of  that  order  placed  close  together,  defining,  for  in- 
stance, the  thickness  of  a  plate,  etc.,  should  be  ruled  in  so  as  to 
"break  joints," as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  In  a  well  executed  drawing 
the  dashes  or  spaces  of  these  "invisible  "  lines  should  be  uniform  in 
size,  a  rule  which  is  only  too  often  disregarded,  and  as  a  consequence 
will  cause  a  peculiarly  "slipshod"  appearance  of  any  drawing,  (see 
specimen,  Fig.  6). 


Center  lines,  axial  lines,  datum  lines  and  lines  of  section  should 
invariably  be  represented  by  dash  and  dot  lines,  the  dashes  twice 
as  far  apart  as  those  of  the  construction  lines,  and  the  oblong  dots 

.  placed   midway  be- 

Construction  Lines.  Cr^}  tween  dashes.   Such 

U lines  should,  for  the 

sake  of  distinctness, 
always  begin    and 
end  with  a  dot.    Oc- 
may 


Center  Line. 

—  16  to  20  - 

Dimension   Line. 


A. 


casions 


Alternative  Line. 

Fig.  5. 

where  the  introduction  of  a  line  of  this  order,  containing  two  or  more 
dots  between  dashes,  may  become  desirable  for  a  specific  purpose. 


The  writer  notices  that  the  average  draftsman  is  especially  care- 
less as  regards  execution  of  this  kind  of  lines,  the  dashes  often 
being  made  solongand 
so  irregular  in  size 
that  a  line  of  this  order 
cannot  al  ways  be  recog- 
nized as  such  (see  Fig. 

7). 

Dimension  lines 
should  consist  of  ob- 
long dots  or  very  short 
dashes,  about  16  or  20 
to  the  inch.  A  suit- 


Fi£-  6' 


able  blank  space  in  the  center  should  be  left  for  the  dimension 
proper.  As  a  certain  amount  of  practice  with  the  ordinary  ruling 
pen  is  required  before  long  lines  of  that  order  can  be  drawn  evenly, 
a  "  dotting  pen  "  might  with  advantage  be  employed.  Lines  which 
indicate  alternative  positions  of  an  object  should  consist  of  half 

length    "construc- 
tion "    dashes.      I  n 
'  regard  to  construc- 

tion  lines,  and    es- 
pecially   dimension 


Fig.  7. 


lines,  the  ordinary  practice  differs  from  the  rules  laid  down  here, 
very  thin  black  ink,  pencil  or  red  ink  lines  being  employed  to 
denote  those  lines.  At  the  same  time  the  tendency  in  using  such 
symbols  is  to  give  construction  lines  a  secondary  character,  and 
to  make  dimension  lines  least  prominent.  A  drawing  for  photo- 
reproduction  therefore,  which  is  executed  in  pure  black,  as  it  pro- 
perly should,  certainly  ought  to  contain  such  distinctive  lines  also 


in  that  color.  Where  rather  small  objects  are  to  be  shown  as 
"  invisible,"  the  rule  given  for  the  construction  of  such  lines  may 
be  modified  and  the  lines  short- 
ened as  necessary,  so  as  to 
outline  corners  and  distinctive 
features,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5A. 
The  first  dash  of  projection 
lines  proper,  to  which  category 
also  the  abutting  lines  between 
dimension  lines  belong,  should 
never  be  permitted  to  touch 
the  "  visible  "  or  full  outline  of 
an  object,  as  otherwise  the  con-  _J_. 
tinuity  of  same  be  interfered  Fi  8 

with,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8,  with  which  Fig.  9,  as  corrected,  is  com- 
pared.    Here  we  see  that  the  values  of  the  dimension  and,  of  some 

center  lines  in  Fig.  8  virtu- 
ally have  to  be  deducted  by 
the  eye  in  interpreting  this 
drawing,  whereas  in  Fig.  9 
the  same  number  of  dimen- 
sions, etc.,  do  not  in  any  way 
interfere  with  the  visible 
outlines  of  the  object,  which 
is  allowed  to  stand  out  clear 
and  distinct. 

When  quite  a  number  of 
broken  lines  are  to  be  used, 
making  a  rather  confused  tangle,  it  will  also  be  advisable  never  to 
let  a  dash  of  such  line  cross  solid  outlines ;  this  will  have  the  effect 


-.-*—- 

;yn* 

r^ 

vi- 


of keeping  the  latter  more  distinct,  and  will  aid  the 
reader  of  the  drawing  in  easily  forming  a  mental 
picture  of  the  outlined  objects  in  relation  to  the 
hidden  or  invisible  parts.     This  point  is  fairly  well 
illustrated  in  Fig.  12,  which  represents  the  rear  end 
of  a  locomotive.     The  heavier  outlines,  which  in 
that  figure  are  shown  to  heighten  the  effect  desired,  will  be  ex- 
plained subsequently.      Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  full 
outlines  show  the  objects  almost  in  relief,  as  it  were,  the  "  invisi- 
ble" lines,  while  not  interfering  with  the  full  ones,  are  not  in  the 
least  slighted;  the  roof  beams  of  the  cab,  the  stays,  fire  brick  arch 
and  the  rocking  grate  of  the  fire-box,  the  several  levers  with  at- 
tachments,    etc., 
show  very  clear- 
ly, as  if  through 
transparent    ma- 
terial. 

A  good  exam- 
ple of  "invisible" 
and  "alternat- 
ive "  lines  con- 
trasted is  given 
under  Fig.  10,  a 
drawing  of  a  fold- 
ing car-step ;  the 
latter  kind  of 
lines  indicates 
graphically  the 
parts  folded  up, 


Fig.  10. 


as  a  close   study   of  the  illustration  will  show. 


11 


Iii  finishing  a  drawing  first  of  all  should  be  drawn  in  the  curves 
that  are  to  be  connected  with  other  lines.  Then  the  horizontal  lines 
or  those  nearly  so  may  be  drawn  ;  and  next  the  vertical  and  diago- 
nal ones.  Curved  lines  on  any  part  of  a  drawing  that  are  not  inti- 
mately connected  with  adjacent  parts  may  be  inked  in  at  the  drafts- 
man's convenience.  Short  portions  of  curves,  which  cannot  easily 

be  matched  by  the  curve 
ruler,  afford  valuable  prac- 
tice in  freehand  drawing 
and  should  unhesitatingly 


Incorrect. 


Correct. 


be  drawn  in  that  manner, 

F'g-  11'  after  making    sure   that 

the  writing  pen  used  for  such  an  emergency  is  pliable  enough  and 
not  too  fine,  so  as  to  give  the  requisite  strength  of  line.  A  smooth 
joining  of  curves  with  straight  lines  is  essential  (see  Fig.  11). 
Small  circles,  such  as  designating  rivets  or  bolt-heads,  may  in  cases 


be  drawn  last  of  all.  Definite  rules,  however,  to  cover  everv 
instance  cannot  be  given  here. 

After  the  outlines  of  the  drawing  have  thus  been  secured, 
the  projection  lines  are  ruled  in  ;  the  dimension  lines  are  then 
placed  between  them,  leaving  suitable  blank  spaces  for  dimen- 
sion numerals.  If  outline  shading  is  desired,  this  work  will  be 
next  in  order,  beginning  again  with  the  curved  and  horizontal 
shade  lines,  and  continuing  with  the  vertical  and  diagonal 
lines. 

The  lettering  of  the  drawing  should  then  be  placed ;  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  make  the  notations,  descriptive  matter  and  dimension 
numerals  too  small — a  very  frequent  mistake.  Good  lettering  and 
the  manner  of  distributing  same  over  the'drawing  materially  adds 
to  the  neat  appearance  and  clearness  of  any  sheet;  the  reverse 
is  unfortunataly  only  too  often  noticeable.  A  competent  drafts- 
man should  also  be  as  expert  letterer. 


CHAPTER    III.     LETTERING. 


~niOR  a  thorough  course  in  the  principles  of  construction  of  free- 
hand  lettering  for  working  drawings,  the  mode  of  procedure 
and  sequence  of  strokes,  etc.,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  author's 
"  Lettering  for  Draftsmen,  Engineers  and  Students  "  (The  D.  Van 
Nostrand  Publishing  Co.,  New  York).  We  intend  in  the  present 


volume,  however,  to  show  a  few  suitable  alphabets,  (inclined  and 
upright  gothic)  which  adapt  themselves  to  the  lettering  of  almost 
any  kind  of  drawing.  These  gothic  styles,  as  shown,  can  all  be 
constructed  with  a  single  application  of  the  pen,  are  easily  executed 
and  look  neat  and  business-like  on  a  drawing.  Where  a  drafts- 


12 


man  has  learned  to  construct  those  styles  properly,  he  will  find  110 
difficulty  after  a  while  to  do  more  elaborate  lettering,  as  the  funda- 
mental shapes  and  proportions  of  the  letters  have  become  familiar 
to  him,  and  are  produced  like  ordinary  carefully  written  or  copied 
English  script. 

The  pens  which  are  used  for  this  style  of  lettering  should  yield  a 


-< 

> 


a  b  cdefghijk  I  tn  n  o  pq  rst  u  v  wxy  z 

A  BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWX  Y Z 

%]//"}  3%*     I  23  45678  9  O     &•      I  H  HI  VV  VI KX    etc. 

Inclined  Lettering,  Used  for  Descriptive  Matter. 
abcdefghij  kl  mnopq  rstuvwxyz 

ABCDEFGHIJ  KLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
Condensed  Style.      &•         IE34567890  Elx-f  e  n  d  ed 

Upright  Lettering,  Suitable  for  Captions . 


Fig.  13. 

uniform  strength  of  line.  As  regards  the  quality  or  grade  of  pens 
to  be  used  the  reader  is  again  referred  to  the  publication  quoted 
above.  The  inclined  lettering  "  cap  and  lower  case  "  shown  on  Fig. 
13  should  invariably  be  used  for  all  descriptive  matter,  such  as 
dimensions,  notations,  etc.  The  upright  style  "  cap  and  lower  case" 
I,  .^  may  be  employed  to  emphasize  names  of 

principal  divisions  or  to  designate  titles 
or  captions  of  some  portions  of  a  draw- 
ing. The  dimension  numerals  of  a  draw- 
ing should  be  placed  boldly  within  the 

blank  space  left  previously  in  the  dimension  line,  or,  space  not  per- 
mitting, set  them  outside  and  point  by  a  dotted  reference  line  to 


the  center  of  the  space  so  designated  (see  Fig.  14).  The  two  sides 
of  arrowheads,  which  should  either  be  pointing  outward  or-  toward 
the  dimensions,  should  be  made  with  a  fairly  fine,  pliable  pen  in 
gradually  increasing  and  finally  de- 
creasing strength  of  stroke,  making 
sure  of  a  symmetrical  head  and  a 
good,  clean  point,  as 
shown  enlarged  in  Fig. 
15.  The  last  dots  of  a 
dimension  line  against 
the  abutting  lines 
might  also  be  omitted, 

so  as  to  aid  the  effect  desired.  The  fraction  numerals 
of  dimensions  should  never  be  made  less  than  f  the 
height  of  the  whole  numbers  ;  they  should,  in  point 
of  fact,  be  made  extended,  so  as  to  seemingly  make 
them  appear  larger,  as  shown  in  one  of  the  following 
figures. 

The  wording  of  the  descriptive  matter  (inclined  style)  should  be 
well  distributed  ;  indeed,  a  good  draftsman  is  able  to  combine  the 
useful  with  the  artistic  aspect  by  properly  arranging  that  kind  of 


i 


Correct: 


Incorrect. 


15- 


lettering.     Just   a  word  or  two  in 
regard  to   the   arrangement  of  the 
lines  of  a  notation :    Either  center 
them  neatly,  or,  better  still,  stagger 
them ;  by  no  means,  have  them  ap- 
pear as  in  Fig.  16,  A  and  B.    Take 
care  to  get  the  different  lines  com- 
posing a  note  very  close  together,  so  as  to  facilitate  reading. 
In  the  author's  "Lettering,"  mentioned  above,  the  "extended" 


A. 
B. 

C. 


For  Traction  ,  (/morrecf) 
Increaser  \  ' 

For  Traction    ^(Li 
Increaser  J 


For  Traction        \ 
lncreaser.} 

Fig.  16. 


13 


style  of  inclined  and  upright  script  is  brought  quite  prominently  to 
the  student's  notice.  It  may  become  at  times  desirable  to  spread 
a  word  or  words  over  quite  a  large  space :  the  single  letters  are 
spaced  further  apart,  and  the  letters  themselves  drawn  extended; 

so  as   to  comfortably  fill  the  allotted 
Truck     (incorrect)  spaces.     In  Fig.  17,  the  correct  way  of 


r 

r 


extending  spaces  as  well  as  letters,  is 

O    K      (Correct)  1,1  -j     n          ,1      j      c 

shown,  as  also  the  one-sided  method  ot 
r'8-  17>  only  increasing  the   width  of  spaces 

without  extending  the  width  of  the  letters.  A  somewhat  surprising 
effect  is  noticed  when  we  compare  the  extended  with  the  ordinary 
and  condensed  styles  of  lettering  of  exactly  the  same  height,  as 
shown  on  Fig.  18.  Here  the  former  type  appears  almost  twice 
the  height  of  the 
latter,  and  it  L-in&  of  Bluffs  extending  North  and  5wth. 

demonstrates  to  fsj  EW    VORK    STATE!  FOREST    RESERVE. 

what  extent  such       K/,          ,  c 

Mannarran    ouspension  -  Bndqe. 
styles  may    be  ^ 

utilized    on    one 

and  the  same  drawing,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  to  some  parts  more 

prominence  than  to  others. 

Lettering  on  curves,  as  in  mapwork  along  a  sinuous  water-course, 

should  always  be 
executed  t  o  con- 
form with  the  dif- 
ferent radii  of  the 
compound  curves, 
that  is  to  say,  the 
vertical  stems  of 

such  letters  should  be  placed  truly  radial.     Where  inclined  letter- 


ing  is  to  be  used  to  designate  such  curves,  allowance  will  have  to 
be  made  for  the  angle  of  such  downstrokes  with  the  vertical,  as  Fig. 
19  illustrates.  Where  the  curvature  of  a  river-course  is  at  points 
too  sudden  to  admit  of  an  easy  continuous  curving  of  its  name  along 
its  side,  such  portions  may  be  disregarded  and  the  curves  eased. 

Fig.  20  contains  a  list  of  contractions  and  abbreviations  which 
are  most  commonly  employed  in  lettering  working  drawings  ;  as 

6'0"Diam.    Circumf.     12.7  °"  Cu.fr    1.4%  Grade 
3'0"F?act.    El.tO.0   4-.Zsq.ff:    3.5yds.  £  =  8°45' 
I2'7"0.to0.(0utto0ut)  /0'0"C.tvC.   4'3£'B.toB.(B 


"0.to0.(0utto0ut) 

R.S.,L.S.,  (Right  or  LefrSide)  H.  W.L.f  M.  W.L.,  L.W.L.fHigh,  Mean,  Low 
Water  Level)    6  "x  8  "  Y.  P.  (  Yellow  Pine)    W.  0.  (  White  Oak)     6.5  1  bS.    79  F. 
ReV.permln.,  R.p.m.  (  Revolutions  per  Minute)       HP.  (Hone-Pomr) 
E.HP.  (Electrical  HK)    Eff.  HP  (Effective  HK)    B.  HP  (  Brake  HF?)    I.  HP 
(Indicated  HP)    H.p.,  I.  p.,  L.p.  Cyl?(High  Pressure,  Intermediate  P., 
Low?  Cylinders)  M.  6.p.  (Mean  effective  Pressure)  C.  R.  ShCtflQ  '(Cola  'Rolled 
Shafting)    C.S.  (Cast  Steel)  C.I..  W.I.  (Castor  Wrought  Iron) 

l^"aorl^>0Rod;  ZLS5Z3H";  l-6"Ci2-IO"I*  4~6"ZS; 
I,  j-  "Web  PL,  SpI.PI.,  Sp/.L5.,  Diaph.(Dia.phraqm)  Laft.  Bar. 

iMC'g  I*;   Kw.  (Kilowatt)   Amp.  (Amperes)  f(  finish)  f  (turn) 
Hydr.  Or.  (Hydraulic  Oracle)    Portl.  Cem.  ConC.     /•'   2.  •  4- 

(Portland  Cement  Concrete;  I  Part  Cement  to  2  farts  Sand  &4Parfs5tone) 

Fig.  20. 

some  draftsmen  are  at  times  at  a  loss  for  correct  or  logical  abbre- 
viations, the  writer  thought  it  worth  while  to  compile  the  list  here 
given.  Some  of  the  abbreviations  here  given  can,  of  course,  only 
be  employed  where  their  use  precludes  any  possible  ambiguity. 

Captions  should  invariably  be  given  ;  every  separate  projection 
should  be  named  distinctly  in  upright  lettering,  as,  for  instance, 
Plan,  Elevation,  Transverse  Section,  Enlarged  Detail  "  C,"  etc.  Not 


only  the  general  appearance  of  the  drawing  is  improved  by  using 
specific  captions,  but  additional  clearness  is  gained.  The  main  title 
in  the  lower  right  hand  corner  of  the  sheet  or  at  its  base  is  placed 
after  a  border  line  has  been  ruled  in.  Make  the  border  consist  of 
single  or  perhaps  double  moderately  heavy  lines  ;  the  writer  would 
not  recommend  the  use  of  any  ornate  design  for  borders  ;  they  are 
as  a  rule  antiquated  and  take  much  valuable  time  to  construct. 

In  regard  to  the  general  title  of  the  sheet,  few,  if  any,  directions 
will  be  given  here,  as  almost  every  book  on  lettering  in  the  market 
takes  up  this  subject  in  a  fairly  thorough  fashion.  Let  such  a  title 
be  composed  of  simple,  easily  formed  letters,  preferably  Gothic, 
made  conspicuous  enough  for  the  main  appellation  of  the  subject 
secondary  in  size  and  body  for  names  of  engineers,  etc.,  and  have  it 


supplemented  by  a  mention  of  the  scale  of  the  drawiug,  lettered 
still  smaller  in  size,  with  the  actual  scale  attached.  Underlining  of 
words  or  notations  on  a  drawing  is  bad  practice  and  should  only  be 
resorted  to  after  all  other  distinctions  have  been  exhausted.  The 
writer's  book  on  freehand  lettering  gives  reasonably  fair  examples 
of  Gothic  and  Roman  large  letters  suitable  for  titles,  as  also  of 
actual  specimens  of  titles  taken  from  working  drawings ;  while 
Jacoby's  "Plain  Lettering"  may  be  recommended  to  those  wishing 
to  arrange  their  titles  in  a  scientific  and  accurate  manner  with 
letters  correctly  spaced  and  proportioned.  For  ordinary  purposes, 
however,  the  average  draftsman  is  well  able  to  space  letters  by 
eye  only,  and  make  quite  a  satisfactory  general  arrangement  for  a 
title. 


CHAPTER  IV.     OUTLINE  SHADING. 


IN  everyday  practice  this  kind  of  shading  is  unfortunately  not 
employed  very  often,  and  upon  some  kinds  of  working  draw- 
ings its  use  would  perhaps  be  a  distinct  disadvantage,  as  the  heavier 
outlines  would  generally  tend  either  to  increase  or  decrease  the 
actual  dimensions  of  an  object  drawn,  which  in  that  case  could  not 
be  correctly  scaled  off,  or  might  tend  to  confuse  small  sections. 
With  sufficient  dimensioning,  however,  a  system  of  shade  lines 
could  very  well  be  employed,  which  would  give  many  drawings  of 


that  sort  of  finished  appearance,  in  which  respect  they  are  sadly 
lacking  in  most  cases.  It  would  furthermore  assist  the  eye  in 
reading  and  interpreting  the  shape  and  proportions  of  parts  at  a 
glance.  Many  offices  prohibit  outline  shading.  In  such  cases  all 
full  outlines  should  be  made  heavier  than  others. 

Outline  shading  should  universally  be  employed  on  all  assembled 
drawings  and  on  such  sheets  where  it  will  not  interfere  with  scaling 
off  of  dimensions  or  with  black  sections  Many  draftsmen  who 


15 


are  in  the  habit  of  using  shade  lines  do  not  make  them  conspicuous 
or  decided  enough.  Shade  lines  should,  as  a  rule,  be  made  about 
three  or  four  times  the  strength  of  the  ordinary  outline. 

The  generally  accepted  rule  in  regard  to  shading  is  to  have  the 
light  fall  from  the  upper  left  hand  corner  at  au  angle  of  45  degrees. 
The  shaded  side,  therefore,  would  be  the  diagonally  opposite  one, ' 
or  in  a  square  or  oblong  figure  the  side  denoting  its  base,  parallel 
with  the  lower  edge  of  the  drawing  and  its  right  hand  side.     A 


Fig  21. 

square  opening  within  any  of  those  figures  therefore  will  have  to  be 
shaded  the  reversed  way,  or  at  the  top  and  left  hand  side.  Assum- 
ing the  square  to  be  set  on  one  angle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  21A,  only 
the  under  side,  which  is  located  at  right  angles  to  the  assumed  rays 
of  light,  would  have  to  be  shaded,  while  the  opening  within  would 
have  its  opposite  side  so  treated.  At  the  same  time,  as  the  reader 
will  perceive,  something  seems  to  be  amiss  with  that  shading.  Let 
us  therefore  deviate  just  a  trifle  from  the  orthodox  rule  and  apply 
the  remedy  :  Add  one-half  or  one-third  the  regular  width  of  a  shade 
line  to  the  lower  left  hand  outline  of  the  square  and  the  upper  right 
hand  side  of  the  opening  and  the  drawing  ("B,")  as  well  as  the  one 
showing  the  square  tilted  slightly  towards  the  left  ("C  ")  and  treated 
in  a  reversed  manner,  appears  finished  correctly. 


22. 


The  shading  of  circles  is  generally  effected  by  "  shifting  centers  " 
or  moving  the  points  of  the  compasses  a  trifle  from  the  center  of 
such  figure,  the  distance  being  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  desired 
shade  line,  and  inking  in  the  shading 
always  in  a  direction  from  left  to 
right.  If  the  new  center  is  correctly 
located  the  shade  line  merges  per- 
fectly atboth  ends.  Another  method, 
as  practised  by  the  writer,  is  to  retain 
the  center,  shade  the  arc  of  a  sector 
of  135°  as  at  "A"  and  "B"  of  Fig.  22, 
the  ends  of  such  fully  shaded  arc 
tapering  and  merging  into  the  light 
portions  as  Tapers  A',  A",  B'  and  B" 
on  the  same  figure  indicate.  The 
improvement  gained  by  following  the  latter  method  is  made  fairly 
clear  by  comparing  "A"  and  "B"  of  Fig.  23. 

Since  the  shade  lines  represent  a  conventionalized  substitute  for 
actual  shadows  cast,  they  should  nearly  always  be  placed  at  the  out- 
side of  the  outlines  of  an  object ; 
there  are  cases,  though,  where  by 
strictly  adhering  to  this  rule  the 
symmetry  of  an  object  would  suf- 
fer, or  where,  again,  it  would  ap- 
pear as  if  notches  were  cut  into 
a  straight  otitline.    In  such  cases 
it  becomes  necessary,  of  course,  to 
place  such  shade  lines  against  the 
inner  edge  of  the  outline.     Such  exceptional  instances  are  illus- 
trated  and   contrasted  in  Figs.    24  and  25.     A  striking  instance, 


Fig.  23. 


16 


which  illustrates  the  advantage  of  shading  the  outside  of  objects  is 
shown  under  Fig.  26. 

Very  often  a  case  may  occur,  that  rivets,  bolts,  etc.,  are  to  be 
shown  in  elevation,  where  the  surrounding  parts  are  cut  away  or 


ffi 


B. 
(Incorrect.) 


-JEHU 

D. 

-N 

f  Incorrect.) 


(Correct) 
Fig.  24.  Fig   25. 

represented  as  being  in  section.  Formerly  all  such  objects  were 
uniformly  section-lined  and  consequently  not  shaded,  but  that  prac- 
tice has  now  become  obsolete. 

Of  course  the  adjacent  parts  of  such  a  section,  as  for  instance 
the  three  thicknesses  of  plate  shown  in  Fig.  27,  are  cut  on  the  same 

plane,  and  therefore  cannot  receive  any 
shading  between  them.  The  plan  "A" 
on  this  figure  explains  why  the  rivet 
shown  in  "B"  must  be  shaded  as  it  is, 


i.e.,  the  heads  overhanging  and  casting 
a  shadow,  and  the  stem  also  projecting 
half  way,  thus  receiving  a  shade  line. 

Incorrect.  Correct.         The  very  common  mistake  committed 

F'&  2&  by  draftsmen  is   to   shade   them  only 

partially  as  is  shown  under  "C"  in  the  same  figure. 

Ordinarily  the  strength  of  full  shade  lines  should  be  made  uni 
form.     Imagine  for  an  exception,  however,  a  simple  side  elevation 


of  a  plate  girder.  If  the  full  strength  shading  were  given  to  the  over- 
hanging top  cover  plate  of  the  upper  flange  it  would  entirely  fill  up 
the  thickness  of  the  horizontal  flange  of  the  top  angle.  In  such  a 
case  a  reduction  in  strength  of  that  shade  line  to  about  one-third 
regular  width  is  advised.  The  lower 
«dge  of  the  flange  of  the  angle  men- 
tioned, outlined  against  a  compara- 
tively wider  space,  may  receive  the 
full  strength  of  shading.  Another 
instance,  if  such  may  be  quoted,  is 
the  shading  of  the  ropes  in  a  draw- 
ing of  a  derrick,  perhaps,  which 
shaded  full  strength  would  appear 
too  clumsy.  Such  distinctions  are 
best  to  be  left,  however,  to  the  indi- 
vidual taste  of  the  draftsman.  In, 
Fig.  28  straight,  tapering  shade  lines 
are  employed ;  here  are  indicated  in 
a  graphic  manner  the  slanting  sur- 
faces of  the  ribs  of  a  manhole-cover 

frame.     Under  certain  conditions  the    "       ^ ~J  ^~ ~T~ 

actual  shadow  thrown  by  this  object  Incorrect. 

would  correspond  with  our  outline  C. 

shading   shown  here.     The  tapered  F'g-  27 

shading  of  curved  outlines,  as  shown  by  Fig.  29,  is  governed  by 
principles  similar  to  those  given  for  circles  and  circular  openings. 
The  eye,  when  properly  trained,  will  be  able  to  determine  the  point 
of  merging  from  the  tapering  shade  to  the  light  outline. 

The  shading  of  a  straight  line  is  generally  effected  by  placing  the 
edge  of  the  rule  a  trifle  below  it,  the  pen  is  opened  slightly  wider,  and 


17 


Plan 


a  line  ruled  parallel  to  the  one  to  be  shaded ;  the  pen  is  then  inclined 

somewhat  towards  the 
draftsman,  and  in  this 
position  will  usually  fill 
the  space  between  the 
two  lines  by  one  applica- 
tion. If  it  is  found  some- 
times that  tho  pen  fills  the 
space  to  be  inked  by  a 
narrow  margin,  a  slight 
turning  of  the  inclined 
pen  towards  the  right  be- 
tween the  thumb  and  the 
index  finger  will  widen  the 
resulting  ink  line  and 
make  it  fully  adhere  to 
the  two  lines,  thereby  fill 
ing  the  space.  Where  a 
horizontal  shade  line  is  to 
be  joined  by  another 
shade  line  at  any  given 
angle,  run  the  first  line  a 
trifle  beyond  the  joint,  as 
shown  at  right  side  of 
Fig.  30.  The  vertical 
shade  line  may  then  be 
joined  to  the  extreme  end 
of  the  horizontal  one, 
vertical  Section.  and  obviously  a  clean 

sharp   corner  in   the   shading,  difficult   to    obtain    otherwise,   will 


result.  For  shade  lines  of  medium  strength  the  pen  is  set  a  trifle 
wider,  and  the  shade  line  ruled  so  close  to  tho  outline  as  to  make  it 
adhere  there.  The  corners  in  such  a  case  need  special  attention. 
In  shading  the  straight  tapering  lines  shown  in  Fig.  28,  the  edge  of 
the  rule  is  set  parallel  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  intended  shade  line 
and  the  heavier  end  is 
generally  commenced 
with.  For  circle  shad- 
ing, the  full  shade  lino 
(see  Fig.  31)  is  first 
filled  in  with  the  pen 
of  the  compasses  in  the 
same  order  as  given 
for  the  straight  line 
shading  (i.  c.,  draw  a 
parallel  line  below,  in 
this  case  a  concentric 

arc,  the  space  between 

,        c,i   j    •      ,  Plan.  SectionA-B. 

to   be   filled   in   by   a  Fig- 29 

second  or  third  application.)  The  tapering  ends,  as  indicated  by 
dotted  lines  in  the  figure,  are  then  put  in  freehand,  by  beginning  in 
either  case  from  the  ends  of  full  lines  and  working  the  ink  care- 
|i  fully,  while  yet  moist,  towards  the  merging 

[I     points.     This,  after  a  little  preliminary  prac- 

F  ig.  30.  tice,  can  very  neatly  be  done  by  the  average 

draftsman  with  the  ordinary  No.  303  Gillott's  pen.  A  better 
method,  although  one  requiring  more  practice,  a  deft  hand  and 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  instrument,  is  illustrated  diagrammati- 
cally  in  Fig.  32.  Here  the  shading,  as  indicated  by  dotted  lines,  is 
effected  by  gradually  springing  the  compasses  or  preferably  bow 


18 


pen,   from    merging   point  to  merging  point;  a  slowly  increasing 
pressure  at  first,  maximum  pressure  for  full  portion  and  gradually 

decreasing  pressure  either  from  or  to- 
wards the  center,  as  the  case  may  be,  will 
produce  in  perhaps  two  applications  the 
strength  desired.     The  relative  intensity 
o£  the  required  pressure  is  indicated  on 
our  diagram  by  differing  lengths  of  ar- 
rows.    As  mentioned,  a  certain  amount  of 
practice  is  necessary  before  this  method 
can  safely  be  employed  upon  an  actual 
drawing.    The  shading  of  portions  of  cir- 
cles is  to  be  effected  also  by  springing  the 
compasses   until  the  heaviest  part  becomes  equal  in   width  and 
merges  into    the   adjoining 
shaded  or  light  lines  (such ' 
as  "  A"  or  "G"  in  Fig.  33). 

After  a  drawing  has  been 
finished   up    to   this   stage 
(outline  shading  and  letter- 
ing  completed),  the  proper 
'£'      '  section  lining  and,  if  desired, 

the  graded  line  shading,  indicating  convex  or 


31. 


Fig.  33 


may  be  added.  That  style  of  finishing  should,  however,  never  be 
allowed  to  run  across  any  lettering  which  has  previously  been  placed 
upon  such  surfaces,  but  should  be  broken  off,  leaving  minute  open 
spaces  around  the  letters,  as  shown  in  Fig.  34.  In  this  manner  the 


concave  surfaces,  or,  on  a  map,  mountain  shading  and  water  lines, 


Fig.  34. 

descriptive  matter  is  not  interfered  with  in  any  way.  The  trifling 
additional  labor  which  the  taking  of  this  precaution  entails,  is  well 
repaid  by  the  clear  aud  tidy  appearance  of  the  respective  parts 
afterwards. 


19 


CHAPTER  V.     SECTION  LINING. 


SECTION  lines  should  always  bo  employed  where  it  is  desired  to 
^  represent  any  object  as  cut  by  a  plane  and  where  the  parts 
intervening  between  the  observer  and  the  plane  of  section  are 
removed.  An  omission  of  the  proper  sectioning  or  "  hatching " 
will  result  in  an  unsatisfactory  drawing,  and  will  sometimes  make  it 
entirely  incomprehensible,  as  the  reader  of  such  drawing  in  trying 
to  interpret  it  has  mentally  to  supply  the  missing  tints,  a  very  try- 
ing and  at  times  irritating  task.  Some  draftsmen  again,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  in  the  habit  of  tinting  or  hatching  all  materials 
represented  in  the  drawing,  making  no  distinction  between  surfaces 
in  section  and  such  as  are  in  elevation,  a  proceeding  which,  entail- 
ing as  it  does,  a  considerable  amount  of  unnecessary  work,  will 
make  matters  even  worse,  as  far  as  the  legibility  of  a  drawing  is 
concerned.  It  is  of  course  well  to  make  some  concessions  in  this 
matter,  as  for  instance,  a  few  courses  of  brick  or  stone  may  be 
suggested  on  an  elevation  of  a  wall,  so  as  to  give  relative  size  of 
adjoining  objects,  or  to  show  the  kind  of  bond  used,  etc.  This 
point  will,  however,  be  treated  more  in  detail  further  on. 

The  color  tinting  of  sections  employed  in  some  establishments 
instead  of  the  pure  black  section  lining  allows,  when  consistently 


placed,  of  a  very  good  mental  picture  of  the  part  so  treated,  and 
the  tints  will  readily  suggest  themselves :  neutral  tint  for  cast  iron, 
blue  for  wrought  iron  or  steel,  yellow  for  brass,  brown  for  earth, 
Indian  red  for  brick,  etc.  When  used  on  a  tracing,  however,  the 
different  colors  cease  to  be  distinct  on  a  blue  print  made  there- 
from, with  the  sole  exception  perhaps  that  the  actinic  value  of 
some  of  the  colors  may  render  those  more  prominent  than  the  rest. 
For  photo-reproductive  purposes  in  black  and  white  a  tinted  draw- 
ing is  also  useless,  as  some  of  the  washes  would  reproduce  as  a 
muddy  gray  or  black,  others  be  entirely  lost.  Therefore  it  is  the 
writer's  opinion  that  all  drawings  for  photographic  reproduction 
should  be  finished  up  in  pure  black. 

In  drawing  and  finishing  a  section  of  any  object  the  draftsman 
very  properly  should  assume  the  "near"  portion  cut  off  by  the 
plane  of  section  as  being  actually  detached;  the  "far"  portion 
thus  remaining  should  be  treated  solely  and  faithfully  under  this 
assumption,  hatching  all  such  parts  as  are  cut  by  the  plane  men- 
tioned, and  leaving  the  unaffected  ones  severely  alone.  These  few 
points  cannot  be  emphasized  too  strongly,  as  very  many  draftsmen 
are  sadly  deficient  in  consistently  following  out  such  conditions 


20 


assumed.  An  almost  pathetic  instance  of  erring  in  that  respect  is 
presented  in  our 
Fig.  35  "  A,"  and 
the  proper  treat- 
ment of  the  parts 
involved  is  de- 
monstrated in 
"  B  "  alongside. 

Before  intro 
ducing  the  stand- 
ards of  section 
lining  defined  be- 
low, it  may  be 
Stated,  that  in 
cases  where  no 

mistakes  regarding  different  materials  employed  are  possible,  or 
where  names  of  materials  are  lettered  on  respective  surfaces,  there 
cannot  exist  any  reasonable  objection  to  the  use  of  a  simple  diagonal 
hatching  across  all  portions  which  appear  in  section.  In  fact,  this 
method  sometimes  possesses  advantages  of  its  own. 

The  standards  of  section  lining  presented  in  the  following  have 
been  employed  and  in  parts  evolved  by  the  writer  while  in  the 
drafting  department  of  "Engineering  News;"  the  metal  sections 
given  are  almost  identical  with  the  ones  used  by  the  Bureau  of 
Steam  Engineering  of  the  U.  S.  Navy  Department.  For  the 
materials  most  often  recurring  the  simplest  method  of  section 
lining  has  been  chosen ;  the  relative  density  and  probable  texture 
of  the  materials  has  also  been  taken  into  account.  If,  while  using 
the  standard  metal  sections  given  here,  the  draftsman  should 
happen  to  be  in  need  of  an  additional  one,  as,  for  instance,  phos- 


phor-bronze, he  may,  by  adding  an  appropriate  set  of  lines  (per- 
haps vertical)  to 
the  symbol  given 
for  bronze,  evolve 
thereby  anew  dis- 
tinction and  still 
indicate  its  rela- 
tionship, or  he 
might  prefer  to 
use  the  symbol 
given  here  and 
letter  on  the 
modified  name. 
In  Fig.  36  the 
F'g-35-  B.  chilled  contact 

faces  of  Car  Wheel  Iron  are  indicated  by  double  and  triple  hatching, 

so   as  to   show  relative 

density  of  those  materials. 

Similar   instances    might 

be   quoted,  where  a  like 

expedient  can  be  adopted 

For  all  ordinary  purposes, 

however,     the     writer 

deems   the   tables    given 


Hard  Brvn: 
Sett-i, 


complete    in    every   re- 
spect. 

The  section  lining  on 
metal  surfaces  shown  in 
conjunction  with  masonry 
sections  should  be  made  about  twice  as  close  as  the  latter,  giving  those 


36. 


21 


a  somewhat  darker  tint  and  rendering  them  distinctly  "metallic."' 
In  drawing  for  ordinary  building  or  bridge  construction,  the 
accepted  practice  is  to  show  all  metal  sections  in  black  as  in  Fig. 
37.  The  lines  between  the  different  thicknesses  of  sections  are 
here  indicated  by  faint  white  spaces,  which  should,  where  such 


I 


Fig.  37. 


(Z  " 


thicknesses  continue  purely  in  elevation,  be  likewise  continuations 
of  the  black  dividing  lines,  somewhat  tedious  to  construct,  since  a 
white  space  between  such  thicknesses  represents  two  separate  out- 
lines. In  drawings  also  where  a  simple  principle  of  construction, 
such  as  shown  in  Fig.  38,  (oil-filter)  is  to  be  illustrated,  thin  metal 
sections  are  very  appropriately  shown  in  solid  black.  In  all  such 
cases,  however,  care  must  be  taken  never  to  let  the  shaded  outlines 
interfere  in  such  a  way  that  they  might  be  mistaken  for  black  sec- 
tions. For  this  purpose  shade  lines  of  one-half  the  regular  strength 
may  be  employed,  which  may  even  be  thinned  down  where  they 
occur  in  proximity  to  the  black  sections  ;  or  other  expedients  may 
be  adopted  in  such  a  case ;  that  is,  the  sections  may  either  be 
slightly  increased  in  width,  or  shading  be  left  off  altogether. 

The  distinctive  metal  sections,  shown  on  plate  I.,  and  the  differ- 
ent masonry  sections  on  plate  II.,  may  be  executed  mechanically 
— with  section  liner  and  ruling  pen.  From  past  experience  the 
writer  has,  however,  lost  faith  in  all  mechanical  devices  for  doing 


this  class  of  work — none  work  satisfactorily,  and  they  cannot  sup- 
plant the  steady  hand  and  alert  eye  of  the  trained  draftsman.  A 
unique  little  home-made  affair,  described  by  L.  F.  Roiidinella  in 
his  paper  "  Rapid  Methods  in  Instrumental  Drawing,"  is  certainly 
cheap.  In  the  following  the 
description  is  given  in  his 
own  words,  and  the  illustra- 
tion, Fig.  39,  attached : 

"  A  very  good  device,  and 
one  that  has  long  been  used 
in  some  drafting  rooms,  can 
be  made  out  of  a  soft-wood 
straight-edge,  about  one- 
eighth  inch  thick  (e.  g.,  a 
penny  ruler)  and  two  pins, 
to  be  used  with  a  triangle 
and 
blade. 

angle  is  placed  against  the 
upper  edge  of  the  soft  wood 
on  the  paper,  so  that  an  ad- 
jacent side  forms  the  angle 
desired  for  the  hatchings, 
and  the  pins  are  driven  into  Fig.  38. 

the  edge  so  that  the  corners  of  the  triangle  can  strike  against  them, 
the  distance  between  the  pins  being  equal  to  the  side  of  the  triangle 
plus  the  desired  distance  between  the  hatchings.  To  use  this  de- 
vice, the  lower  edge  of  the  soft  wood  is  placed  against  the  upper 
edge  of  the  T-square  blade,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  With  the 
triangle  against  the  left-hand  pin,  a  line  is  drawn  along  its  right 


1NO1 
a    T-square  * 

One  side  of  the  tri- 


against 


22 


hand  edge  ;  the  triangle  is  still  held  firm,  and  the  straight  edge  is 
slid  to  the  left  until  stopped  by  the  right-hand  pin ;  the  straight- 
edge is  then  held  firm,  and  the  triangle  slid  up  to  the  left-hand  pin  ; 
a  second  line  is  then  drawn,  and  this  process  is  repeated  until  the 
section  surface  is  covered  with  equidistant  lines.  After  a  little 
practice,  work  can  be  done  very  rapidly  with  this  device,  and  the 
eyes  are  not  strained  to  judge  the  distance  between  the  lines." 

Another  simple  section-liner,  devised  by  A.  S.  Burgess  and  shown 
under  Fig.  40,  seems  to  be  an  improvement  on  the  above.  By 
changing  the  triangle  in  the  three  slots,  we  can  get  a  combination 

giving     twelve     different 
widths    of    spacing,  enough 
almost  to  cover  every  case 
in    practice.     Section  lining 
by  eye  requires  practice  and 
a  steady  hand  ;  avoid  at  the 
beginning  of  the  work   too 
•'-j  close    a    spacing,   an   error 
^  7- square  Blade  d|  which  very  many  draftsmen 

;  "    commit ;    start  with  the  or- 

dinary outline  strength  in  a 

45°  diagonal  direction  with  moderately  large  spacing ;  after  every 
10  or  12  lines  filled  in  glance  back  over  the  completed  area,  so  as 
to  gradually  correct  any  deviation  towards  narrowing  or  widening 
spaces.  If  you  notice  that  a  line  just  ruled  is  spaced  too  far  from 
the  last  one,  rectify  by  purposely  ruling  the  next  line  too  near,  and 
vice  versa,  assuming  immediately  afterwards,  however,  the  normal 
width  of  spacing.  In  this  manner  an  even  "  coloring "  of  the  sec- 
tion-lined surface  can  be  maintained.  This  is  made  clear  by  referr- 
ing to  Fig.  41,  showing  an  evenly  hatched  surface,  where  neverthe- 


Soft  Wxxl  Straight  Edge 


Cutoutaboui'a 
and  vary  let 


less  "a"  and  "c"  indicate  too  narrow  and  too  wide  spaces  respect- 
ively, which  are  rectified  by  subsequent  spaces,  "b"  and  "  d,"  as 

related  above.  For 
very  rapid  work,  the 
writer  employs  the 
medium  sized  45°  tri- 
angle, using  its  hypo- 
thenuse  as  working 
edge  ;  the  90°  point  is 
raised  and  the  left 
thumb  placed  under 
same,  while  the  four 
remaining  fingers  of 
that  hand  slightly  ex- 


] 

'-^longer  lhan  the  longest 

side  ofCe/luloid  Trantfle. 


Fig    40. 


tended,  serve  modeV- 
ately  to  press  the  rul- 
ing edge  down  ;  the  triangle,  sliding  only  on  the  lower  edge  of  its 
hypothenuse,  responds  to  the  slightest  motion.  The  parallel  posi- 
tion of  the  lines,  of  course,  becomes  more  or  less  problematical ; 
for  the  writer  believes,  while  fully  realizing  the  consequences  of 
being  considered  a  confirmed  heretic, 
that  truly  parallel  lines  are  not  es- 
sential in  section-lining  as  long  as  an 
even  tone  of  the  hatched  surf  ace  is  ob- 
tained by  the  means  outlined  above. 
With  small  or  narrow  areas  of  sec- 
tions the  author  takes  the  liberty  of 
doing  them  freehand  altogether,  and  Fig-  41- 

there  is  no  reason  why  a  draftsman  possessed  with  a  steady  hand  can- 
not neatly  cross-hatch  a  narrow  strip  with  an  ordinary  pen.     For  do- 


23 


.-Attachment  for  Operating 
I        Rod  of  Feed  Hopper. 


Feed  Aperture  — 


Bert  Pulley 

for 

Automatic 
Feed. 


Portland  Cement 
and  Sand  Itvl'. 


ing  this  class  of  work  on  transparent  material  the  detached  sheet  of 
"Reinhardt's  Lettering"  placed  under  that  part  of  the  drawing  may  be 
found  quite  useful  in  giving  spacing  and  direction  of  lines,  etc.  Ad- 
jacent areas  should  receive 
section  lines  in  opposite  di- 
rection; where,  however,  the 
section-lining  of  three  or 
more  areas  adjoins,  30°  ruling 
may  in  addition  be  resorted 
to,  as  shown  by  Fig.  42.  It 
is,  of  course,  plain,  that  the 
same  pieces  of  metal  must 
here  be  section-lined  in  the 
same  direction  (as  on  both 
sides  of  vertical  shaft  "A")  so 
as  to  establish  their  identity. 
In  regard  to  section-lining 
brick  or  stone,  as  on  plate 
II.,  the  writer  would  promulgate  another  pet  heresy  :  these  materials 
never  show  up  so  well  as  when  a  narrow  strip  against  the  lighted 

sides  of  the  respective  areas  is  left  open, 
thereby  enhancing  the  effects  of  light  and 
shade  ;  the  time  expended  in  ruling  in  the 
necessary  pencil  lines  defining  such  spaces 
is  well  paid  for  by  the  improved  appear- 
ance of  the  sections  afterwards.  The 
§•  section-lining  for  stone,  as  the  denser 

material  should,  as  shown,  be  ruled  with  pen  set  for  about  one  half 
the  strength  of  a  shade  line.  Still  further  distinction  in  this  respect 
may  sometimes  be  indulged  in,  as  our  Fig.  43  shows.  Here  the 


* 

g-  43' 


24 


JK^fo. 


=>.  »VO  /-> 

'.-./X-.i  <•>  o 
•'•?;,&    •> 


z> 

o 

/3 


•'•/S''V:v  -'i^"  t^..*-      -^/\ 

iM^i/-'^  ^ 

i^^>:-^^  ^^> 


light  effects  on  the  edges  of  the  separate  stones  are  perhaps  uncalled 
for ;  they  might  have  been  produced  at  the  top  and  left  hand  side 
only,  the  masonry  being  thus 
treated  as  a  whole.  In  the  case  of 
coursed  masonry  the  separate 
courses  are  generally  not  indicated) 
although  in  some  instances  it  may 
be  desirable  to  do  so.  In  "  broken 
stone"  and  "  concrete"  (plate  II.) 
the  separate  stones  should  be 
shown  angular  in  shape.  Have 
the  rip-rap  stones  neatly  overlap- 
ping. Broken  stone  can  be  shown  by  placing  each  stone  separately. 
When  it  is  desired  to  show  same  tightly  packed,  as  for  ballast  in  a 
roadbed,  another  method,  as  shown  in  Fig.  44,  may  be  employed : 


3d. 


2d. 


1st. 


Q, 


Broken  Stone. 

Fia.  45. 


Gravel. 


r-EUX.O 


and  then  put  in  cross-strokes  at  different  angles.  The  stones  and 
gravel  in  "concrete"  should  always  be  shown  shaded ;  the  outlines 
can  neatly  and  quickly  be  constructed  with  a  single  continuous 
stroke  and  varying  pressure  of  the  pen,  as  shown  in  Fig.  45.  Throw 
in  the  stones  at  random ;  then  fill  in  sparingly  between  these  with 
the  heavy,  irregularly  shaped  dots,  occasionally  putting  in  a  smaller 
stone  where  needed.  Finally  even  up  the  tint  of  the  whole  by  plac- 
ing the  small  dots,  indicating  particles  of  cement,  which  will,  when 
judiciously  placed,  supply  the  necessary  finish  to  the  section,  and 
make  it  resemble  the  real  material  pretty  closely.  In  "  gravel  con- 
crete" the  gravel  should  of  course  receive  rounded  outlines,  and  can 
be  quickly  constructed,  as  shown.  For  the  placing  of  the  heavy 
black  dots  in  "cinder  concrete"  a  heavy  lettering  pen  may  be  used  ; 
each  dot  to  be  produced  by  a  single  application. 

In  all  these  and  the  following  freehand  sections  the  tint  should 

be  carried  closely 
against  the  "  light " 
outlines,unless  some 
other  dark  tinted 
section  is  joined  at 


J-EI.UI.61 


.-£1.111.0 


Sodded 


Clayey  Material 
~~   and  bruvel. 
Rolled  in  Layers. 


Section  ttirouqh  Outflow  Pipe. 


Section    through     Inflow    Pipe. 


Fig,  46. 

Draw  sinuous  courses,  sometimes  parallel,  sometimes  converging,        those  sides,  when  narrow  open  spaces  should  be  left,  analagous  to 
the  distance  generally  being  equal  to  the  desired  size  of  the  stones,        rules  to  be  observed  in  making  masonry  sections.     (Observe  "loam" 


25 


Ho.  16  Expanded 
Metal-. 


Each  Alternate  Rod  turned 
up  at  Ends. 

Part  Transverse  Section  A-B. 


and  "puddle"  sections  against   "filling"  and  "  crushed  stone"  sec- 
tions, etc.,  Fig.  45). 

The  increasing  use  of  reinforced  concrete  in  modern  constructive 
work  has  necessitated  a  modification  of  the  standard  employed  for 

showing  ordinary 
concrete.  In  such 
sections  the  rein- 
forcing system  or 
skeleton  of  rods  and 
wires  should  be 
shown  by  fairly 
heavy,  short,  double 
or  single  dashes, 
where  in  side  eleva- 
tion, and  by  solid 
black  sections,  giv- 
ing circular  or 
square  shape  of 
such  wires  or  rods, 
where  this  reinforce- 
ment appears  in 
cross-section.  The 
reinforcement  is 
thus  allowed  to 
stand  out  bold  and 
clear ;  the  concrete 


mf-Back  Walk 

W/r///////?//////"' 

Port  Longitudinal  Section  C-D. 
Fig.  47. 

itself  is  represented  in  light,  broken,  diagonal  lines,  as  our  Fig.  47 
shows.  The  advantage  of  using  this  modified  standard  for  concrete 
section  is  demonstrated  by  comparing  A  and  B,  Fig.  48. 

"  Gravel "  is,  wherever  occurring  in  the  following  sections,  never 


shaded,  so  as  to  avoid  any  of  its  compounds,  such  as  "  sand  and 
gravel,"  being  mistaken  for  concrete.     The  symbol  for  "sand"  can 


Concrete-Steel  Floor,.. 
4"  thick. 


^'"Distributing  Rods, 
Spaced  I Z"C.toC. 


Carrying 
Rods,5naced 
*  C.toC. 


Rubble  Concrete  Piers, 
Spaced  IZ'C.toC. 

>i*" 

A.  B. 

Fig.  48. 

with  a  little  practice  be  evenly  placed  by  connecting  groups  of 

dotted  circular  arcs,  as  shown  in  Fig.  49. 

Water  in  repose  (Plate  III.)  may  be  represented  in  two  ways,  as 

the  exigencies  of  the  case  may  demand  :  by  graded          .......     .... 

solid  lines,  decreasing  in  strength  as  their  spacing        .s-SS&MSv.- 

increases,  or  by  evenly  spaced,  uniformly  broken       ijiVln'ifi  ';:V:;;;-:; 

lines.     The  latter  method  is  employed  for  showinsr     ££&..!£;.../•£&:•••• 

"  oil"  in  Fig.  38,  and  it  answers  very  well  for  con-          "''''Si-vSr/' 

trasting  the  two  liquids  shown  in  that  illustration. 
Earth  is  indicated  by   series   of  short  parallel 

strokes,  about  4  or  6  in  a  bunch,  constantly  changing  in  direction. 

Where  only  a  narrow  strip  of  an  earth  section,  such  as  under  a 

foundation, is  to  be  indicated, 
a  neat  way  of  toning  it  down 
in  color  is  suggested  in  Fig. 
50,  which  shows  the  three 
stages  of  drawing  the  sec- 


3d. 


1st. 


Zd. 

Fig.  50. 

tion.     As  will  be  noticed,  the  strokes  in  the  first  stage  are  made  tap- 
ering downwards  and  placed  closest.     "  Earth  filling  "  (Plate  III.) 


26 


can  be  shown  by  disconnected  parallel-lined  bunches  interspersed 
with  dots,  showing  a  generally  broken-up  texture.     In  drawing  the 
symbol  for  "bed  rock"  it  will  first  be  necessary  to  throw        / 
in  the  heavier  dividing  lines,  indicating  seams,  before      /-^ 
the   actual  filling-in  can  be  commenced.     Make  those 
tapering,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  51,  and  irregular 
in  direction  and  length; 
some    extending    and 
breaking  up  at  a  little 
distance   out.     Where 
quite  a  deep  section  of  F'£-  51- 

rock  is  required  lateral  seams  may  be  put  in  additionally,  as  shown. 
In  filling  between  seams  by  sets  of  parallel  lines,  their  direction 
should  change  as  abruptly  as  possible  between  the  different  sets. 

In   showing    stratified 


rock,  horizontal  seams, 
or  nearly  so,  should  be 
predominant,  except  in 
a  case  where  a  dip  of 
the  strata  occurs,  when 
naturally  the  seams 
must  be  drawn  so  as  to 
represent  that  inclina- 
tion. If  any  filling-in 
at  all  is  desired  here,  it 
may  be  done  sparingly 
against  the  edge. 


Band  End 
Connection. 


Transverse  Section. 

Fig.  52. 


not  definitely  known,  and  is  executed,  as  shown  on   plate   III.,  by 
wavy,  freehand  lines. 

In  showing  "  puddle  "  section  on  same  plate  the  horizontal  strokes 
may  be  done  either  freehand  or  by  rule  ;  they  should  however,  break 
joint  neatly  ;  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  symbol  for  "  silt,"  where 
the  shorter  dashes  should  be  pretty  closely  placed.  "  Cement,"  as 
distinguished  from  "  sand,"  is  shown  with  large  and  small  dots. 
Where  drawing  some  of  the  geological  symbols  contained  on 
Plate  IV.,  throw  in  for  instance  "boulders"  at  first  at  random, 
"  cobbles"  or  "  gravel"  afterwards  as  fillers. 

Cross-sections  of  wood  shown  on  same  plate,  to  be  done  free- 
hand of  course,  should  always  represent  circular  arcs;  where 
complete  "  rings "  are  drawn,  have  them  as  nearly  circular  as 
possible;  increase  spacing  from  the  core  outwards  in  slightly 
wavy  lines.  The  drying  cracks  or  "  checks,"  which  are  one  of  the 
principal  characteristics  of  the  transverse  wood  section,  should  be 
made  nearly  radial ;  a  little  critical  study  of  the  sawed-off  end  of 
a  square  timber  will  be  helpful.  Fig.  52  appended  herewith,  shows 
a  cross-section  of  a  timber  electric  conduit,  and  is  a  pretty  fair 
specimen  in  showing  the  grain  of  the  different  portions. 

Longitudinal  sections  of  wood  are  generally  drawn  by  wavy  lines 
fairly  evenly  spaced.  If  more 
refinement  is  desired,  the  study 
of  the  texture  of  a  planed  pine 
board  may  be  advisable.  As 
shown  by  Fig.  53,  a  judicious 


Fig.  53. 


The  "undefined"  symbol  might  indicate  either  bed  rock,  earth  or 
sand ;  it  is  with  advantage  employed  where  the  actual  material  is 


placing  of  a  few  solid  blacks  by  back  and  forward  strokes  of  the 
pen,  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the  timber,  will  produce  the  desired 
effect.  The  writer  deems  it  unnecessary  to  adopt  different  kinds 
of  graining  for  sections  of  various  specimens  of  timber  ;  distinctions 


27 


in  that  direction  may  be  attained  by  lettering  on  the  relative  names. 

Additional  specimens  of  geological  symbols  are  given  on  plate  V. 
in  "  sections  of  well  borings."  Note  how  increase  in  density,  signify- 
ing increasing  hardness  of  the  "  red  sandstone"  in  the  first  boring, 
may  be  represented  in  such  a  case. 

The  portion  of  "  covered  filter  bed  section  "  on  plate  V.  shows  suc- 
cessive layers  of  filter- 
ing materials ;  different 
sizes  of  filter  gravel 
may  be  designated  as 
shown ;  observe  how 
the  light  strip  at  the 
base  of  the  two  upper 
layers  of  that  material 
enhances  clearness. 
The  symbol  for  "sand" 
is  only  filled  in  down- 
wards some  distance 
from  the  edge  for 
reasons  of  saving  time; 
the  effect  produced 
thereby  is  better  than  a 
carefully  worked-over 

whole  surface  could  give.  On  the  "manhole-section"  introduced 
on  the  same  plate  every  material  shows  so  distinctively  that  the 
descriptive  matter  was  totally  dispensed  with  on  that  drawing.  The 
sections  of  the  vitrified  pipe  were  here,  for  exceptional  reasons,  left 
entirely  white. 

Asthedrawings  of  more  recent  electrical  constructions  are  as  anile 
inconsistently  treated  and  therefore  hard  to  understand,  the  writer 


Transverse  Section  L-L. 


thought  it  expedient  to  insert  under  Fig.  54  two  sections  of  an  elec- 
tric motor.  In  ordinary  drafting,  as  well  known,  no  distinction  would 
be  made  between  parts  of  laminations  "  A  "  in  section  or  in  elevation. 
In  our  drawing  this  point  is  strictly  maintained.  The  exact  thickness 
or  the  number  of  those  plates  is  of  course  not  given,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, such  information  may  be  lettered  alongside.  Insulations  are 

shown  black  (where  in 
section),  although  the 
ordinary  electrical 
draftsman  generally 
puts  in  all  insulating 
material  in  that  color, 
whether  shown  in  sec- 
tion or  elevation. 

The  drawing  from 
which  our  illustration 
was  copied,  indicated 
the  actual  courses  of 
the  wires,  presumably, 
in  the  circumferential 
coils  "F"  in  "Longi- 
tudinal Section "  by 
horizontal  and  vertical 


t  M 

Longitudinal     Section. 


lines,  and  in  "Transverse  Section  L-L"  the  coil  "F"  showed  concen- 
tric rings  corresponding  with  the  horizontal  joints.  This  arrange- 
ment, though  perhaps  unnecessary,  was  faithfully  copied,  so  as  to 
make  a  concession  to  existing  notions  upon  the  subject.  In  order, 
however,  to  show  those  parts  clearly  as  section,  a  diagonal  set  of 
lines  was  added,  which,  although  at  variance  with  existing  prac- 
tice, was  the  only  consistent  way  to  treat  the  portions  involved. 


28 


CHAPTER  VI.     CURVED  SURFACE  SHADING. 


THE  portions  of  a  drawing  which  represent  curved  surfaces  may 
be  executed  either  by  graduated  tinting  (wash)  with  water 
colors  or  by  line  shading.  The  latter 
process,  which  will  be  described  in  de- 
tail below,  requires,  if  properly  carried 
out,  considerable  practice  and  skill. 
The  style  of  cylinder  shading  generally 
taught  and  used  by  some  draftsmen,  is 
shown  by  Fig.  55A,  and  looks  exceed- 
ingly neat,  where  no  outline  shading  is 
supposed  to  have  been  employed. 
Where  such,  however,  has  been  used,  Fig.  55. 

and  curved  surface  shading  is  to  be  added  for  the  sake  of  clearness, 

these  surfaces  must  logically  be 
represented  as  at  "  B,"  showing 
the  darkest  shading  near  the  edge. 
The  theoretical  method  of  curve 
shading  is  made  so  clear  by  Fig. 
56,  that  no  further  explanation  will 

be  necessary.     An  unusually  poor  example  of  such  work  from  a 
plate  of  the  Mississippi  River  Commission's  report  is  shown  under 


our  Fig.  57,  demonstrating  to  a  certainty  that  the  draftsman  did 
not  follow  such  rule,  and  further- 
more, did  not  possess  the  redeem- 
ing trait  of  being  able   to  space 
his  lines  by  eye. 

Definite  rules  for  the  construc- 
tion of  graded  curve  shading,  fair 
examples  of  which  are  given  under 
Fig.  58,  and  on  plate  V.  (Man- 
hole-Section), would  be  difficult  to 
formulate  and  could  not  always 
be  applied  successfully ;  therefore 
the  writer  will  content  himself 
with  giving  a  few  concise  hints 
relative  to  the  subject  matter  for 
the  guidance  of  the  draftsman. 

Begin  ruling  the  light  side  of  a 
cylinder  from  the  edge  towards 
the  center  with  lines  of  uniform 
strength ;  place  the  first  line  as  F'g-  57' 

close  as  possible  to  the  outline  proper ;  increase  spacing  of  the  lines 


29 


/£" ----- 

Side  Elevation. 


gradually  at  about  the  rate  of  3  to  5 ;  keep  on  increasing  spaces 

until  near  center,  then  stop.     When  ink  on  lines  just  ruled  has 

dried,  begin  at  the  oppo- 
site or  dark  side  ;  rule  a 

line   about   three  -  fifths 

the    strength    of   the 

shaded   outline,  as  near 

as  possible,  leaving  just 

a  trace  of  a  white  space 

between  the   two.     The 

next   line    ruled   should  Fl£  58- 

again  be  about  three-fifths  the  strength  of  the  preceding  one,  with 

spacing  as  on  the  light  side,  a  trifle 
wider  between.  Keep  on  in  this  man- 
ner until  no  more  grading  of  lines  is 
possible,  the  minimum  or  outline 
^  strength  of  line  having  been  reached, 

~^\/^  when  a  similar  increase  of  widths  of 

Fig-  59.  space  may  be  resumed.     End  near  or 

at  the  center  line,  leaving  an  open  space  against  the  other  side. 

Carefully   watch   the   respective   grading 

and  spacing  of  the  lines,  also  make  sure 

that  the  open  space  which  represents  a 

high  light  on  the  curved  surface,  comes  to 

one  side  of  the  center  line  of  the  object 

so  treated,  and  after  some  practice  this 

shading   may   be   done   quite  effectively. 

The  shading  of  cones,  where  frustated,  Fig   61. 

must   naturally   always   converge   in   the  imaginary   apex,    which 

should  be  placed  in  pencil  before  beginning ;  a  preliminary  which 


many  draftsmen  deem  superfluous,  and  the  omission  of  which  will 
always  be  noticeable.  In  shading  the  dark  side  with  graded  lines, 
care  should  be  taken,  for  obvious  reasons,  to  have  those  shade  lines 
tapering  toward  the  apex,  as  our  Fig. 
59  shows.  It  will  help  the  clearness 
and  also  improve  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  drawing,  if  a  white  edge 
like  that  described  for 
"masonry  sections"  in  the  °'  ;'  ?'  V  * 
preceding  chapter,  is  left 
open  against  the  light  side 
of  the  ends  of  the  curve 


Fig.    62.  Side  Elevation. 

shading,  a  treatment 
which  all  illustrations  ac- 
companying the  present 
chapter  have  received. 

Where  a  curved  por- 
tion adjoins  a  straight 
part,  as  for  instance 
shown  in  Fig.  GO,  the  best  R2-  60- 

way  to  proceed  is  to  throw  in  the  shading  of  the  former  with  the 
compasses  first,  and  then  carefully  join  the  straight  lines  afterwards. 
The  proper  manner  of  constructing  the  tapered  arcs  is  set  forth  by 


30 


our  Figs.  23  and  32,  which  accompany  the  chapter 
on  outline  shading.  Fig.  01  illustrates  the  use  of 
pencil  guide  lines  to  insure  a  perfect  joint  at  the 

points  °^  tansent- 

HI  'JI*  Itsometimesmay 
be  desirable  to  in- 
crease the  shade 
eft'ect  of  pipe 
flanges,  for  in- 
stance, in  which 
case  freehand 
shade  lines,  as  in 
Figs.  60  and  62, 
parallel  to  the 
flange  in  this  case, 
m  a  y  be  judici- 
ously  placed. 

As    the    drafts- 

man  may  some- 
times be  pressed 
for  time,  and 
some  curve  shad-  " 
ing  should  never- 
theless  be  em- 

ployed  for    the 

i        c    i 
sake  or  clearness, 

Lower  citing.  the  handy  expe- 

FiS-63  dient     of    only 

shading  curved  objects  on  the  dark  side  may  be 

resorted  to,  as  shown  in  our  illustrations,  Fig.  63, 


k-  .....  14"  ......  V( 


Upper  Casting. 


SECTION  A-B. 


HORIZONTAL    SECTION. 

A. 


Horizontal  Section. 
B. 


Fig.  64. 


31 


and  the  drawing  of  the  D'Auria  Pump  on  plate  VI.  This  leaves 
the  eye  to  supply  the  missing  shading,  and  answers  well.  The  little 
flat  freehand  shading  on  the  latter  figure  used  sparingly  helps  in 
this  particular  case  to  give  flat  effects  against  the  curved  portions, 
where  left  blank. 

Piles  may  be  shaded  very  neatly  freehand  with  a  303  Gillott's 
pen  in  the  manner  shown  on  "  Standard  Pile  and  Trestle  Bridge," 
plate  VI.  The  strokes  composing  the  shade  lines  should  be  made 
wavy,  so  as  to  represent  a  somewhat  rough  surface.  Where  de- 


sired, this  shading  may  also  be  executed  on  one  side  only.  While 
going  to  some  extent  into  details  for  shading  on  curved  surfaces, 
the  writer  would  employ  this  kind  of  finish  only  where  clearness 
demands  it,  or  where  it  is  essential  that  a  highly  finished  draw- 
ing be  produced.  He  would  certainly  deprecate  the  use  of  curve 
shading  in  connection  with  a  drawing  where  the  essentials  of 
correct  drafting  are  so  flagrantly  violated,  as  on  Fig.  64  "  A,"  and 
would  only  use  it  where  absolutely  necessary,  as  shown  in  the  cor- 
rected drawing,  Fig.  64  "  B." 


CHAPTER  VII.     SHADING  OF  INCLINED  SURFACES. 


TNCLINED  surfaces  are,  as  a  rule,  represented  by  parallel, 
-L  evenly  spaced  lines;  the  greater  the  angle  of  inclination  of 
any  surface  from  the  picture  plane  the  closer  the  spacing  of  those 
lines  should  be.  This  kind  of  shading  should  again  only  appear 
on  mechanical  drawings  for  special  purposes,  or  where  clearness 
demands  it. 

Inclined  light  surfaces  should  receive  light  line  shading,  while 
the  dark  inclined  spaces  should  be  ruled  by  lines  of  similar 
strength  as  the  shaded  outlines  defining  such  area.  This  is  suffi- 
ciently made  clear  by  the  illustration  on  plate  VII. ,  where  in 
"  Plan  of  Invert "  the  light  stepped-off  incline  shading  joins  the 


dark  curve  shading  and  vice-versa.  This  shading  has  to  be  very 
carefully  done  where  the  incline  becomes  tangential  to  a  curve, 
as  shown  for  instance  on  "  Hinge  Support  Casting "  on  same 
plate,  and  the  relative  spacing  can  here  be  determined  by  dividing 
the  total  inclined  or  curved  surfaces  into  equal  parts,  and  then 
projecting  those  points  from  the  elevation  to  the  plan.  The  suc- 
cessful draftsman  will  of  course  sooner  or  later  depart  from  the 
strict  rule  and  depend  solely  upon  his  eye  to  determine  the  proper 
spacing. 

Where  desired,  this  kind  of  spacing  can  be  sparingly  applied, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  curve  shading ;  that  is  to  say,  light  surfaces 


32 


may  be  left  blank  altogether,  as  the  plan  of  the  "Funnel- Shaped        produced  through  gradually  decreasing  the  pressure  on  the  pen  at 
Spillway  "   on  plate  VI.  indicates.      The  plan  of   the  "  Reservoir       each  stroke,  as  in  making  mountain  slopes  (Fig.  65). 

The  nature  of  materials  with  which  such  slope  is  lined  may 
sometimes  also  be  represented,  as  for  instance  "  riprap,"  which  can 
be  shown  by  a  symbol  similar  to  the  "  crushed  rock "  section, 


f 


K'Oarftmr  BJnxftM., 


i  "l;!1:!™1!'!""""!™"':l'S3!!l> 

in1.  ;.'!»I!'!I!I!![||I[!|||!!!!|IIH1H 

v'l'1  "l|,'Hr::;i""!.n';;i;ii 

&(  -K'.25  ••> 

E/.lnverf:       ~^ 
•4W-            .*- 

|<     ;          «KB  -^ 

I       4Dlam. 
U-             62.25          •> 

I         EIAI.O 

\     ^    El.  46.0 

LI.4S.O 

f  /.  Invert:      J 
43.30 

[    4'  Tile     Underdraw  . 

6'P,pe:  •••:• 
KsesO.'IO 
per/00' 

1    1 

e'P/pe,  
RisesO'40 
perlOO' 

\  «       f 

7                                 ^ 

r          *ti                                        N 

*                                \ 

Fig.  65. 


Fig.  66. 


Embankment"    on  plate  VII.  shows  purely  freehand   lines 
parallel  to  top  and  foot  of  slope,  to  denote  a  rough  surface. 
Such  slopes  may  in  some  instances  also  be  indicated  by  tapering,        closely  packed,  as  indicated  on  Fig.  66.     This  kind  of  work,  how- 
wavy  strokes,   drawn   at  right    angles   or  radial  to   the  top,  and       ever,  is  closely  allied  to  a  subject  which  we  take  up  next  in  order. 


33 


CHAPTER  VIII.     TOPOGRAPHICAL  DRAWING. 


THE  mechanical    draftsman  may  at   times    be    called    upon    to 
execute  maps  more  or  less  sketchy  in  appearance  ;  this  kind 
o£  work  cannot  altogether  be  styled  mechanical  drafting.     In  the 
following  the  writer  will  endeavor  to  limit  himself   almost  exclu- 
sively to  the  subject  of  "sketch  maps;"  once  proficiency  in  such 

work  is  acquired  however,  by  the 
average  draftsman,  he  will  be  able 
to  produce  nearly  or  quite  as  good 
work  as  a  regular  topographical 
draftsman  can  accomplish. 

Freehand  outlines  should  always 
be  drawn  with  a  medium   strength 


pen  ;  a  well-worn   Gillott's  No.  303 


Fig.  67. 


will  answer  nicely.  Outline  shading 
of  any  map  is  essential ;  shade  rivers, 
roadways,  streets,  lakes,  etc.,  strictly  as  depressions,  while  city 
blocks,  bridges,  buildings,  outlines  of  land  against  water  and  simi- 
lar objects  should  be  treated  as  projections.  The  freehand  shading 
of  coastlines,  or  of  roadways  must  be  done  punctiliously;  half  or 
quarter  strength  shade  lines  should  be  used  at  the  proper  angle,  as 


has  been  set  forth  by  Figs.  29  and  33,  and  is  indicated  here  by  Fig. 
G7. 

The  features  which  are  shown  upon  any  map  may  be  classed  in 


S  /        %  * 

/foc/rs  above 
Buoy-         Light  Buoy.         Water. 


>*>  Light 

LightShip.        House. 


Lock 


Salt  Water 
Marsh. 


Fresh  Wafer 
Marsh. 


Fig.  68. 

three  groups,  and  where  coloring  is  to  be  employed  may  be  indi- 
cated by  suitable  tints,  as 

1.  Water;   (blue)   represented   by   seas,    lakes,   ponds,    streams, 
canals,  swamps,  etc 

2.  Relief;  (brown)  mountains,  valleys,  cliffs,  etc. 

3.  Culture  (black)  represents  works   of  man,  such  as  railroads, 
roads,   cities,  boundaries,   etc.     All  the  lettering  of  a  map  should 


Of  THE  \ 

VNIVEftfi/Tv    ) 

or 


also  be  don©  in  black.     The  built-up  portions  of  cities  can  be  shown 
in  solid  black,  as  also  the  single  houses  represented. 

Another  group  may  here  be  mentioned.  The  vegetation,  as  woods, 

meadows,  orchards, 
etc.,  may  be  indicated 
by  easily  understood 
conventions  and  tint- 
ed light  green.  Where 
coloring  is  not  desired 
these  different  fea- 
tures may,  of  course, 
be  shown  in  black, 
and  are  also  represent- 


ed here  in  that  manner 
under  Figs.  68,  69,  70 
and  71. 
After  the  necessary  outlines  of  a  map  have  been  inked  in  and  the 


Flat  Rock. 


69- 


Tunnel. 
Levee. 


Cut. 


Secondary  Road 


Private  or  Farm 
Ffoad. 

""TraTl"" 


Bridge. 


State  Boundary. 

•  ^M  •  mmmm^^mm 
County        H 

Township      »» 


jiaoaa.-.o^JO^X)^ 
Hedge. 

Stone  Fence. 
Wire  •>  • 
Rail  »  . 
Picket  n  . 
Property  Une  nut  Fenced. 

•»  xe« 

Mine  or      Benchmark. 
Quarry.  ^ 

^          Triangulation 
Shaft.        Station. 


Fig.  70. 

outline  shading  has  judiciously  been  placed,  the  lettering  is  put  on. 
The  slyle  of  lettering  to  be  used  on  sketch  maps  is  described  in  the 


author's  work  on  "  Lettering,"  and  is  deemed  more  i:i  keeping  with 
the  general  style  of  such  maps  than  the  orthodox  roman  and  italic 
letters.     The  subsequent  work  consists  in  finishing  up  proper. 
Watercourses,  where  indicated  by  a  single  line,  should  be  drawn 


3  $  li  O 

•i  O  c>  O 

0  0  0  0 

»  o  o  \t  • 


Meadow, 


Orchard. 


Deciduo 
Trees, 


iduous 
es, 


v*. 


Willows. 

********* 
*:**-?*** 


Evergreen 
Trees. 


Cane  Brake. 
••„• .  •  « 


Brush  I 
;**~T«7=* 


fine  W//oiv 
<7/T£/  Brush. 


Cedar  and 


Fig.  71. 

in  a  direction  towards  the  source,  so  as  to  end  there  with  as  finely 
tapering  a  stroke  as  possible.  Avoid  the  flat,  meaningless  stylo  of 
line,  as  under  "  Incorrect "  in  Fig.  72,  but  endeavor  to  produce  a 
wavy  or  ''  wabbling"  effect,  as  shown  alongside.  Where,  however, 
two  opposite  shore  lines  are  used  to  denote  the  width  of  a  water- 
course, or  where  in  general,  water  adjoin- 
ing land  portions  is  to  be  shown,  thin 
lines  running  along  the  shore,  similar  to 
contour  lines,  may  be  used  to  indicate 
such  water  surfaces.  Draw  the  first  one 
as  close  as  can  possibly  be  done  all  around 
the  land  portions.  Follow  with  the  sub- 
sequent ones,  finishing  each  contour  com- 
pletely before  touching  the  next  one.  Ob- 
serve increase  in  spacing,  which  should  be 
about  the  same  as  advised  for  light  side  in  chapter  VI.  "  Curved 
Surface  Shading."  Take  care  to  have  such  lines  pass  under  a 


Incorrect. 


Correct 


Fig.   72 


bridge  for  instance,  and  around  an  island  or  pier,  as  exemplified  by 
Fig.  73.  Closely  follow  at  first  the  shore  line  into  every  nook  and 
corner;  the  next  contours  will,  of  course,  gradually  develop  into 
more  or  less  flat  curves.  The  writer  uses  for  the  drawing  of  such 
''water-lines"  a  Gillott's  Lithographic  or  mapping  pen.  Good  ex- 
amples of  such  water  shading  are  given  under  "Map  of  Porto  Rico" 

and  "Location  of  White  Pass  and 
Yukon  Ry.,"  on  plate  VIII.  About  G  to 
10  lines  will  bo  found  amply  sufficient 
to  offset  the  land  neatly.  Such  work, 
when  properly  executed,  gives  an  excel- 
lent finish,  pleasing  to  the  eye  and  the 
73  lines  suggest  the  form  and  relative  spac- 

ing of  actual  waves  coming  shoreward. 

When  it  is  desired  to  spend  somewhat  less  time  and  still  attain  a 
suitable  finish  for  the  land  portions,  they  may  be  offset  against  the 
water  by  adopting  the  shore-hatching.  By  this  method  uniformly 
short,  evenly  spaced  lines,  drawn  in  a  direction  as  nearly  as  possible 
radial  to  the  curves  of  the  shore  line,  are  used. 
Fig.  74  explains  the  principle  involved  very 
well.  This  treatment  gives  a  most  realistic 
effect  on  an  indented,  broken-up  coast  line.  In 
the  map  of  the  "  North  Sea  Countries  of 
Europe,"  plate  VIII.,  this  hatching  has  exclu- 
sively been  used. 

A  sandy  flat  coast  can  be  offset  by  the  method  Fig-  74. 

shown  in  Figs.  75  and  76.  In  the  former  illustration  the  rows  of 
dots  are  placed  in  a  similar  manner  as  the  "  water-lines,"  the  spaces 
widening  out  inland.  The  sand  dunes  on  Fig.  76  are  also  similarly 
treated. 


Contour  lines  on  a  map,  (Figs.  69  and  77)  must  be  indicated  by 
very  light  lines.  Every  fifth  or  tenth  contour  should  be  accen- 
tuated by  drawing 
same  heavier.  For 
this  purpose  a  well 
worn  Gillott's  No. 
303  pen  may  be 
recommended;  this 
will  yield  a  fairly 
uniform  line  of  me- 
dium strength,  re- 
quiring no  pressure 
when  once  the  ink 
has  well  started 


Fig.  75. 

The  convention  for  "  Bridge 
conditions,  as  for  instance  a 
small  plan  of  a  drawbridge 
with  center  pier,  etc.,  may  be 
substituted  for  the  type  shown 
in  our  illustration.  The  strokes 
indicating  slope  in  "  Cut "  and 
"Fill,"  or  "Levee"  in  the 
same  figure,  should  be  drawn 
in  a  "wabbling"  or  vibrant 
manner,  and,  beginning  with 
heavy  pressure,  gradually  de- 
crease in  strength  until  they 
end  in  a  hair-line  (see  Fig.  78). 
direction  towards  the  body. 


flowing. 
in  Fig.  70  may  be  modified  to  suit 


01254 


Point, 


Fig.  76. 

They  should  always  be  drawn  in  a 
A  good  draftsman  with  a  trained  eye 


36 


200' 


and  steady  hand,  however,  may  construct  these  strokes  in  a  re- 
versed way,  beginning  with  hair-line  strength  and  finish  with  the 

heavy   stroke. 

In  Fig.  79  is 
shown  an  in- 
stance where, 
for  specific  pur- 
poses, a  good 
many  distinc- 
tions for  rail- 
ways had  to  be 
evolved  ;  this 
table  or  legend 
is  taken  from  a 
railway  map 
published  in 
"  Engineering 
News." 

The   conven- 
tions  shown  in 
Fig.  71  can  be 
Fig-  77.  supplemented 

considerably  by  adopting  suggestive,  easily  understood  symbols  for 
different  kinds  of  crops.  The  tufts  of  grass  in  "meadow"  should 
begin  and  end  in  short,  light  strokes  of  the  pen ;  the  correct  and  in- 
correct ways  are  shown  in  Fig.  80A.  The  dis- 
tinction between  "orchard"  and  "wood"  is  so 
obvious  that  no  further  description  is  necessary.  F'g-  78. 

The  method  of  easily  and  correctly  forming  deciduous  trees  is  also 
indicated  in  Fig.  80,  under  "  B."    Make  as  near  circular  as  possible, 


a  very  important  point.  "Evergreen"  trees  are  shown  by  five- 
pointed  asterisks,  of  which  the  first  three  strokes,  as  in  "  C  "  of  the 
same  figure,  are  each  placed  by  one  application  of  a  pliable  pen  at 
or  nearly  the  correct  angle,  so  as  to  leave  room  for  strokes  4  and  .">. 
The  conventions  for  "willows"' 

similar 

for  di- 

;  Brush 


are  to  be  done  in  a 
manner  as  the  arrows 
mension  lines.  In 
Wood  "  small  trees  are  drawn 
and  tufts  of  grass  placed  at 
intervals.  The  symbol  for 
"  Cultivated  Land "  may  also 
be  used  for  fallow  or  freshly 


( brand  Trunk  Pacific  Ry.  or 
\  National  Transcontinental  Ry. 
Trans-  Canada   Ry. 


Canadian  Pacific 
Grand  Trunk    Ry. 
Intercolonial   Ry. 
Canadian  Northern  Ry. 
Canada  Atlantic  Ry. 
Gr.  Northern  Ry.  of  Canada. 
•  Other  Railways. 


. 

Correct. 

.>'"',,.    ..>n% 

Incorrect. 

A. 


a 

B. 


Fig.  79. 

plowed  land,  and  on  a  color  map  yellow  ochre  be  used  instead  of 
green. 

The  mountain  work  on  a  map  can  be  executed  by  a  fair  drafts- 
man in  quite  a  satisfactory  manner  after  some  practice  and  a  little 
attention  to  the  following  directions.  The  con- 
tour lines  should  first  be  approximately  pen- 
ciled in  from  the  available  notes  ;  the  hatch- 
ing or  short  disconnected  lines,  by  means  of 
which  the  mountain  shading  is  effected, 
should  always  be  drawn  vertically  to  the  con- 
Fig.  80.  tour  and  in  a  direction  downward  from  the 
summit  (see  Fig.  81).  Have  the  strokes  overlap  slightly  at  times 
rather  than  leave  open  spaces  between  the  rows  of  hatched  con- 
tours (see  A  and  B,  Fig.  81).  Where  contours  are  not  parallel  the 
hatching  lines  must  be  drawn  radiating,  so  as  to  have  their  ex 
tremities  normal  to  the  contour  at  which  they  terminate. 

The  degree  of  slope  is  indicated  by  varying  the  distance  between, 


c. 


37 


as  also  the  thickness  of  the  hatching  lines.     Such  lines  accordingly 
are  drawn  heavier  and  closer  spaced  as  the  slope  is  steeper,  and 

finer  with  wider  spaces  between  for 
gentle  slopes.  Where  a  slope  sud- 
denly becomes  abrupt  tho  tint  must 
be  deepened,  or  short  lines  at  right 
angles  to  hatching  must  be  interpo- 
lated (see  "  Cliffs"  in  Fig.  69). 

The  hatching  must  therefore  run 
parallel  to  the  "line  of  greatest  de- 
scent," or  a  line  indicating  the  short- 
est course  which  water  would  take 
running  down  from  the  summit. 
This  will  account  for  the  curving 
outward  of  those  strokes  in  the  pro- 
jecting slope  in  Fig.  82  "A."  A 
draftsman  who  has  acquired  the  prac- 


Section . 


)y\\ 

LVI 


i/inm\\ 


A. 


B. 


Fig.  81. 


shown    l»y 
B,v  of  the 


78   satisfactorily,    can    fairly   well   shade    the    slopes 
"A,"  Fig.  82  with  the  single   strokes,  as  outlined  in 
same  figure. 

Fairly  good  examples  of  mountain  work  are  contained  on  plate 
VIII.  and  on  Fig. 
34. 

Take  a  not  too 
fine,  well-used 
pen  to  execute 

......  ™»™v- 

mm 


B. 


tice  of  drawing  the  long,  tapered,  single  strokes  indicated  in  Fig. 


the  hatching 
with.  On  the 
map  of  the 
"White  Pass  and 
Yukon  Ry."  the  Fig'  82' 

mountain  work  is  treated  somewhat  sketchily  through  only  finish- 
ing one  side  of  a  hill  or  mountain  range  for  instance,  as  a  means  of 
saving  time  and  to  prevent  an  overcrowding  of  the  map,  the  whole 
of  the  country  represented  being  quite  mountainous. 


38 


CHAPTER  IX.     CHARACTER  AND  FINISH. 


chapter  .s  principally  devoted  to  supplement  the  subjects 
treated  upon  in  the  foregoing.  Thus  there  may  be  cases, 
where  it  is  desirable  to  add  sparingly  a  few  touches — features  which 
in  the  preceding  chapters  have  not  altogether  been  enumerated. 

In  the  instance  of  the  "Masonry  Portal  of  Sewer,''  plate  IX.,  the 
rock  face  of  the  stones  can  very  appropriately  be  denoted  by  a  few 
sketchy  freehand  strokes  against  the  light  side  of  the  wall,  or  some 

courses  of  brick  may  be  'indicated  in  the 
side  wall  of  the  boiler  setting  of  the 
"  Playford  Stoker"  on  the  same  plate, 
and  still  not  interfere  with  the  clearness 
of  the  drawing,  the  section-lined  parts 
standing  out  clear  against  the  back-ground. 
The  few  sketchy  touches  upon  the  piers 
of  the  "Harlem  River  Drawbridge"  (plate 
XL)  have  been  put  in  for  more  than  orna- 
mental purposes,  and  a  close  scrutiny  of 
the  drawing  will  reveal  in  a  way  the  nature  of  the  masonry  em- 
ployed, and  the  different  methods  of  foundation  adopted  for  the 
piers. 


Wood 


Metal  or  Stone 


Fif.    83 


Half- 


Half- 


Where  wood  in  elevation  is  to  be  distinctly  treated,  a  few  wavy 
strokes,  as  in  "Sectional  Elevation  of  Caisson,"  plate  IX.,  and  in 
"  Standard  Pile  and  Trestle  Bridge,''  plate  VI.,  will  in  the  former 
instance,  where  shown  in  "  Half  End  Elevation,"  answer  the  pur- 
pose of  contrasting  the 
outer  sheeting  as 
"wood"  against  the 
metal  plate  of  the  cut- 
ting edge.  When  it  is 

overdone    to    such  an  Shafting.  Pipe, 

extent,  however,  as  in 
the  "  Caisson  for  New 
East  River  Bridge," 
plate  IX.,  it  will  tend 
to  obscure  any  distinc-  incorrect, 

tion  between  the  parts  Fig.  85. 

in  section   and   eleya 

tion,  and  only  making  matters  worse,  represents  simply  so  much 
time  wasted.  Pure  end  elevations  of  timber  should  receive  some 
treatment,  and  parts  of  "rings"  may  in  snch  a  case  be  placed  in 


L 


Flat  Bar. 


Ry.  Track  Rail. 


Double  Angle. 


Channel. 


i 


a  sketchy  way,  although  the  whole  area  to  be  shown  as  end  eleva- 
tion should  never  be  filled  in  completely,  as  the  upper  part  of  the 
illustration  just  mentioned  on  plate  VI.,  will  show. 

Such  treatment,  if  judiciously  applied,   suggests  at  a  glance  a 

number  of  instructive 
details,  and  further- 
more enhances  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  drawing. 
In  order  still  more  to 
heighten  such  an  effect 
the  breaks,  if  breaking 
off  of  materials  has  to 
be  resorted  to,  should 
also  be  made  to  suggest 
the  nature  of  such 
materials,  and  even 
their  shape.  Thus 
wood  should,  as  a  rule 
be  broken  off,  as  Fig. 
83  shows,  so  as  to  con- 
trast with  metal  or 
stone.  In  Fig.  84  a 
few  characteristic 
specimens,  showing  a 


II 


Round  Rod. 


Square  Rod. 


I  Beam. 


ZBar. 


1 


Pipe. 


Sewer. 


Fig.   84. 


formation  of  breaks, 
suggestive  of  the  rela- 
tive shape  of  the  objects,  are  represented.  The  consistent  follow- 
ing out  of  the  rule  given  above,  seemingly  results  in  the  case  of 
the  "sewer"  on  the  same  figure,  almost  in  a  perspective  repre- 
sentation of  that  object,  which,  perhaps,  would  be  carrying  the  point 


4'Pin 
Side  Elevation. 


Sectional  Plan. 
Fig.  86. 


too  far.  The  collection  given  here  can,  where  occasion  offers,  be  en- 
larged upon  by  the  individual  drafts- 
man. 

Just  a  word  or  two  in  regard  to 
the  correct  construction  of  such 
"  breaks."  First  of  all,  it  must  not 
be  forgotten,  that  a  very  decided 
distinction  should  be  made  between 
breaks  of  shafting  and  of  pipe. 
Under  Fig.  85  the  correct  style  of 
the  outline  shading  of  such  breaks 
is  demonstrated,  showing  how  half 
and  full  strength  shade  lines  can  be 
used,  so  as  to  properly  indicate  the 

shapes.     The  lower  portion  of  the  same  figure  illustrates  how  such 

breaks  are    occasionally 

drawn  and  shaded  up  by  the 

inexperienced  ;    here    the 

draftsman    was    not    able 

to  realize,  that  the  greatest 

thickness  of  the  pipe  wall 

could  consistently  only  be 

shown  either  at  the  top  or 

at  the  bottom  of  the  break, 

and  that  the  same  inevit- 
ably  must    decrease    in 

width   towards  the  middle 

at  the  sides. 

The    elevation    and    sec- 
tional plan  of  the  panel  point  of  a  bridge  span,  in  Fig.  8(5,  shows 


o 


Rivets. 


Screw 
Head. 


Bolt  Nuts. 


Shaded 

Outlines 

only. 


Rope 
or  Cable. 


Fig.  87. 


40 


ll'Bolt 


without  a  word  of  descriptive  matter  to  a  trained  eye  the  shape  and 
''  make-up"  of  the  different  members  composing  the  structure.  The 
duplicate  breaks  in  the  elevation  might,  of 
course,  be  dispensed  with,  where  the  number 
of  bars  or  channels  are  given  in  the  lettering 
descriptive  of  the  "  make-up." 

In  the  representation  of  a  timber  crib,  on 
plate  XL,  the  isometric  view  shows  how  ordi- 
nary outline  shading  may  be  applied  to  a  per- 
spective' drawing — somewhat  at  variance  with 
the  outline  shading  of  pure  plane  projections. 
Here  the  ends  of  the  timbers  are  for  obvious 
reasons  broken  off  in  a  very  plain  manner. 

Rivets  for  metal  structures  are,  as  a  rule,  left 
unshaded,  except  where  drawn  to  a  large  scale. 
In  the  latter  case,  shading  may  be  applied  after 
one  of  the  fashions  shown  on  Fig.  87.  The 
writer  thought  it  unnecessary  to  employ  any 
code  for  the  various  manners  of  riveting,  as  the 
different  bridge  and  construction  concerns  have 
each  formulated  a  standard  of  their  own  for 
such  work.  Shading  of  large  scale  bolt-nuts 
may  with  advantage  be  used,  as  shown  on  same 
illustration  and  in  Fig.  88.  On  assembled 
drawings,  the  writer  sometimes  goes  to  the  ex- 
treme of  showing  rivets  or  nuts  in  plan,  as 
represented  again  in  Fig.  87,  outlining  only 
the  shaded  portions.  This  method  may  be 


\  I 'Test  Piece 


|"//0/« 


i'Hole 


1Hole 


-1*4'*  20" 


Fig. 


recommended  where  effect  alone  is  desired. 

In  regard  to  Fig.  89,  which  illustrates  the  rational  shading  of 


Ordinary 
Style 


^Shaded 
Full 


Dark 
Sidl 
Auerrr- 
uated 


screw-threads,  little,  if  anything,  will  be  said,  as  the  drawing  is  self- 
explanatory.  The 
"full  "shading  of 
the  triangular 
threaded  screw 
may  be  recom- 
mended as  espe- 
cially effective, 
'^Shading  !^~~^\\  although  the  or- 

>  (Outlined 


dinary  shaded 
outline  is  suffici- 
ently distinct  for 
ordinary  pur- 
poses. Under 
the  sub  -  caption 
"threads  flat"  in 
the  square 
threaded  screw 
the  effect  of  un- 
Here  the  absence 


.     ifjary 
Outlines 


Triangular 
Thread. 


Conventional 
Symbol. 

f  Pencil  Guide  Lines  are  Indicated  by 

Vertical  Dotted  Lines) 

89. 


Square 
Thread. 


Fig. 

shaded  threads  against  the  shaded  stem  is  shown, 
of  shading  in  the  threads 
really  conceals  their 
correct  shape  in  repre- 
senting them  as  straight 
surfaces,  and  a  little  free- 
hand shading,  as  shown 
above  under  "  shaded 
full,"  is  necessary  to 
bring  out  the  fact  that 
they  are  circumferential  in  plan  to  a 


Fig.  90. 
round    stem. 


For  showing 


square  threads  at  a  smaller  scale,  the  ordinary  outline  shading,  of 
course,  will  suffice.  Another  method  of  shading  square  screw- 
tlireads,  which  is  not  shown  here,  is  to  employ  convex  line  shad- 
ing, described  in  a  preceding  chapter — quite  a  tedious  piece  of 
work,  at  the  whole.  The  proportioning  of  spaces  of  the  pencil  guide 
lines  indicated  on  our  illustration  practically  suffices  for  laying  out 
the  curved  outline  of  shading  described  here. 

The  correct  manner  of  shading  male  and  female  screw-threads  in 
proximity  is  shown  in  Fig.  90.  The  shading  of  the  lower  part  of 
"A"  is  just  the  reverse  of  that  of  the  upper  portion.  The  slope  of 


the  female  thread  is  also  shown  in  the  opposite  direction,  as  the  por- 
tion which  is  seen  beyond  the  plane  of  section  corresponds  to  the 
hidden  part  of  the  (male)  thread  of  the  bolt.  This  matter  is  sim- 
plified or  conventionalized  in  "  B"  of  the  same  figure;  make  sure  to 
keep  the  outline  shading  of  the  bolt  and  the  female  threading  inside, 
and  do  not  encroach  upon  the  section-lined  area  on  either  side. 

The  elevation  of  the  Columbus,  O.,  Freight  Station,  on  plate  XI. 
demonstrates  finally  how  well  a  sketchy  method  of  treating  mas- 
onry, etc.,  adapts  itself  to  architectural  drawings.  The  treatment 
of  the  windows,  especially,  is  well  worth  studying. 


Cast  Iron. 


Malleable  Iron. 


Wrought  Iron. 


Steel  Casting. 


Stee\  Forging. 


Copper. 


Lead. 


Zinc. 


Babbilt 


Wires. 


Brass. 


Bronze. 


Glass. 


Rubber  or 
Vulcanite. 


Leather 


Asbestos 
or  Fiber. 


PLATE    I. 


Brick    Masonry. 


Rubble,  Coursed. 


Gravel 
Concrete. 


Cinder 
Concrete. 


Rubble,  Uncoursed. 


•g  Concrete,-^  Rubble. 


Fire  Brick  or  Terracotta . 


Riprap. 


Expanded  Metal  Reinforcement. 


Cement,  Mortar 
or  Plaster. 


Ashlar. 


Cinder  Filling. 


Ordinary  Concrete. 


Wire  Reinforcement. 


Asphalt  on  Concrete. 


PLATE    II. 


Silt. 


Water. 


Gravel. 


Undefined. 


Mud. 


Earth,  Original. 


Earth,Filling. 


Puddle. 


Sand. 


Rock,  Amorphous. 


Clay. 


Gravel,  Mixed 
with  Clay. 


Marl. 


Rock,  Stratified. 


Soapstone. 


Loam. 


PLATE 


Sandy  Loam. 


Quicksand. 


Hardpan. 


Sand, Loam  and  Boulders. 


Boulders  and  Cobbles  with  Sand. 


Clay  with  Hardpan  and 
Boulders. 


Hardpan  with  Cobbles. 


Longitudinal  Section. 


Fascines. 


Variously    Dimensioned  Wood  and  Timber  Sections. 


Block  Paving. 


Wood  Paving. 


Ry.  Tie. 


PLATE    IV. 


\ 


West  End. 

Borings  at  Fort  Lawrence  Dock, 
Amherst.N.S. 


80  ft.  Marsh  Mud 


?<3  ft  Turf  and  Mud 

(Kat) 

IT  ft.  Red  Clar,  probably 
Boulder  Clay. 


48  ft.  Soft 
Red  Rock. 


70  ft  Softer 
Red  Rock. 


.  ~\  * 

freestone.         l^-^= 

llft.fmClay.        I  ^ 
SftSandandClar.) 


SECTION  OF 
COVERED 
-FILTER  BED 


Bore  Hole  at 
Sugar  Refinery. 

SECTIONS  OF  WELL  BORINGS. 


Boring  at  Aulac. 


MANHOLE  SECTION. 


PLATE    V. 


R  A  irps. 

or  THE 

•4     If 


0'        l'        2'       3'        4'        5'       6' 

L...I... 


Caps  sized  to  ll\  'over  Pi  IRS. 
Stringers  n   «  15$" »  Caps. 


A  — 


Vertical  Section  A-B. 
FUNNEL-SHAPED   SPILLWAY. 


Transverse   Section. 

STANDARD 
PILE  AND  TRESTLE  BRIDGE. 


PLATE    VI. 


A  ,<" 

r  ;-  r  . 


51  TY 


0'  Id'  10'          30'          40' 


Section  of  Weir 
Enlarged. 


Commie  Apivn:  4'0'lfa'cli 


ConcreteFloor  'J 
2'0'ttticli 


Top  Plan 

RIO  GRANDE  CONCRETE  DIVERTING  DAM 


K- "  7£  * 4J  "- »l 

Elevation. 


Plan. 
HINGE  SUPPORT  CASTING. 


PI  a  not  Invert. 
DETAILS  OF  INVERT. 


PLATE    VII. 


Completed  b'ne  '• •  "^™ 
Under  Construction:  — — 
Proposed  Extension  ••  •••••••« 


MAP  SHOWING  LOCATION  OF 
WHITE  PASS  &  YUKON   RY. 


r 


NORTH  SEA  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE. 


CHICAGO  BUSINESS  CENTER. 


Macact.  Roads :  • 


MAP  OF  PUERTO  RICO. 


PLATE   VIII. 


El.4158.4! 


CONCRETE  CHANNEL  AND  MASONRY  PORTAL  OF  SEWER. 


Half  Cross  Section.     Half  End  Elevation. 


Longitudinal    Section. 

PLAYFORD       STOKER. 


-'-•^  Sacfenaid  ElevationtmnsvereetoBridqeAxis.showingftulkheod          Sect.oo showinq Jnwie. 
CAISSON,  NEW  EAST  RIVER  BRIDGE. 


PLATE    IX. 


y^--->i<----/5;r?-.->i<.^V?-^ — ^"^;ffffi'"" 


four  Main  Line  Tracks 
( Plymouth  and  Midland  Divisions 


Members  V,W,X,Y  I  are 
L«!ftfc»          each  Composed  of 
two  Channels  with 


Banvmof  Channel,  El. -15.0 

' 


Elevation. 


PLATE    X. 


Roadway: 
&.I&.0 


Roadway: 
£.1.129.0 


345' 0" 


K-   6Z.S-  * -K'f->K 75.0     ». 

>K 259.'0  •k--- 

HARLEM  RIVER  BRIDGE 


ZS07'o"—i 


Stont  Cap 


Enlarged 
Isometric  View 
Showing    fbrtion 

of  Top 


Plan 


TIMBER  CRIB  DETAILS. 


End   Elevation. 
COLUMBUS,  (0.) 

FREIGHT  STATION. 


PLATE    XI. 


YE  01974 


